COSMOS - Traditional Cosmology Society

COSMOS

The Journal of the Traditional Cosmology Society

Volume 21 Number 2 December 2005

Editor: Emily Lyle

Review Editor: Aude Le Borgne

CONTENTS

Editorial

Emily Lyle 135

The Hog-Bagpiper Gargoyle at Melrose Abbey Katherine Campbell 137

The Triangular Frame-Harp on the Pictish Symbol Stones Marnie Boyd 147

Lives Set in Stone: The Preoccupations of the Elites of Early

Historic Scotland Kate Anderson 185

Reviews 199

Indexes to Volumes 11–20

Title Index 205

Author Index 213

Name and Subject Index 223

Review Index 257

Advisory Board Alan Barnard (UK, 2004-7), Geoffrey Barrow (UK, 2004-7), John

Brockington (UK, 2004-7), Julia Budenz (USA, 2003-6), Katherine

Campbell (UK, 2005-8), Anna L. Dallapiccola (UK, 2004-7), Rosalie David

(UK, 2004-7), Glenys Davies (UK, 2004-7), A. W. E. Dolby (UK, 2004-7),

Gavin Flood (UK, 2004-7), Louise Olga Fradenburg (USA, 2004-7), J. C. L.

Gibson (UK, 2004-7), Olivia Harris (UK, 2004-7), Máire Herbert (Ireland,

2004-7), Luc de Heusch (Belgium, 2004-7), J. Gordon Howie (UK, 2004-7),

Charles Jedrej (UK, 2004-7), Alice Beck Kehoe (USA, 2003-6), G. E. R.

Lloyd (UK, 2004-7), Michael Loewe (UK, 2004-7), John MacInnes (UK,

2004-7), James P. Mackey (UK, 2004-7), Rosalind K. Marshall (UK, 2004-

7), T. S. Maxwell (Germany, 2004-7), Don McCaskill (Canada, 2004-7),

Mirjam Mencej (Slovenia, 2005-8), Jeffrey B. Meyer (USA, 2003-6), Dean

A. Miller (USA, 2004-7), Glyn Richards (UK, 2004-7), Irina Sedakova

(Russia, 2005-8), Anthony Shelton (UK, 2004-7), Jacqueline Simpson (UK,

2004-7), Lawrence E. Sullivan (USA, 2003-6), Lana Troy (Sweden, 2003-

6), Frank Whaling (UK, 2004-7), Annabel Wharton (USA, 2004-7), Roy

Willis (UK, 2004-7), Nicolas Wyatt (UK, 2004-7), Teigo Yoshida (Japan,

2004-7).

© 2008 Traditional Cosmology Society

Printed by Airdrie Print Services, 24-26 Flowerhill Street, Airdrie ML6 6BH

ISSN 0269-8773

Editorial

EMILY LYLE

In this issue, we follow the pattern set earlier in the Cosmos series.

Volumes 1 to 10 were indexed at the end of Volume 11 and similarly

Volumes 11-20 are indexed here at the end of Volume 21.

This issue (which is going to press in January 2008) also contains

papers deriving from the conference on “Symbols on Stones and

Stones as Symbols” which was held in Edinburgh on 15-16 June

2006. This was an extremely varied and wide-ranging conference, but

one focus was the sculptures of Scotland, and it was possible (thanks

to the warm hospitality of Isabel Morrison) to give our two

participants from abroad, Catharina Raudvere from the University of

Copenhagen and Sandis Laime from the University of Latvia, a tour

of Pictish stones in Angus on the day following the conference.

The conference clearly acted as a considerable stimulus. After it,

Kate Anderson took a completely fresh tack in her study of the

Pictish stones and developed a statistical approach to the images she

was interested in. Katherine Campbell re-visited Melrose to examine

the other stones that carried images of musicians besides the gargoyle

that first attracted her attention, and added further comment on them.

Marnie Boyd, who performed on the concert harp at the conference

reception as well as presenting a paper, went on to explore more

deeply the whole topic of the development of the triangular frame-

harp in which the evidence from the Pictish stones plays such an

important role.

Gardner Molloy, a sculptor who gave a presentation on “Life and

Death in an East Lothian Graveyard”, was much struck by the

contribution of one of the discussants following the harp talk who

quoted the remark that Scotland after the death of Columba was “like

a harp without a tuning key” and has since used these words in a

representation of “The Scribe”, and has allowed a photograph of this

work-in-progress to be included here (see Figure 1; and further at

www.gardnermolloy.co.uk).

http://www.gardnermolloy.co.uk/

Emily Lyle 136

Additional material from this conference with a broad

cosmological scope will be included in the next issue.

Figure 1

Cosmos 21 (2005), 137-46

The Hog-Bagpiper Gargoyle at Melrose Abbey

KATHERINE CAMPBELL

One of the most interesting stone carvings at Melrose Abbey in the

Scottish Borders is that of the hog-bagpiper gargoyle. The audio

presentation which one can listen to whilst walking round the site

draws attention to it, and causes the visitor to look high up to the

intersection of the wall and the roof where it is situated (Figs 1 and 2)

on the south side of the Abbey.1 It describes the pig, to the right of a

statue of the Virgin Mary, as one of the most renowned gargoyles in

Scotland, and alludes to the dragons and other depictions found

elsewhere at Melrose. No further information is given on the hog-

bagpiper during the tour, although tourists can buy a postcard of it in

the gift-shop as they leave: the hog has aesthetic appeal as well as

curiosity value.

The surprising survival of a statue of Mary (which would have

been a prime target for the iconoclasts after the Reformation) has

been accounted for by the superstitious awe generated by an incident

in the seventeenth century:

Milne relates a tradition, how, when the person employed to destroy the statues in 1649 struck at this one [of the Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus] his first blow knocked off the head of the infant, which, in its fall, struck his arm and permanently disabled him, so that neither he nor any one else cared to recommence the work of destruction. [Note.] This “miracle” is said to have been talked of at Rome, with the additional marvel that the man – known as “Stumpy Thomson” – was dragged ignominiously to his grave at a horse’s heels. This last circumstance is so far true that, the individual in question having died during a severe snowstorm, his coffin was dragged to the churchyard on a horse sledge. (Groome 1882-5: 5.26; cf. Milne 1743: 18).

Katherine Campbell 138

The destruction of images in Scotland is mentioned by Siller and

Meyler in their survey of representations of pigs in medieval Britain

and, after commenting on the lack in Scotland of the choir-stalls

Figure 1. View of Melrose Abbey showing the positions of the statue of the

Virgin Mary and the hog-bagpiper gargoyle. Photograph by Mike

Sutherland, 21 April 2007.

found in England, they note with pleasure the survival of “one

astonishingly well-preserved pig bagpiper in the form of a gargoyle”

at Melrose (1961: 25). The pipes played by the Melrose hog include a

bag which provides the reservoir of air that enables the pipes to sound

continuously; in this respect they differ from the triple-pipes

portrayed in earlier stone carvings in Scotland – on the Pictish stones

at Lethendy and Ardchattan and on St Martin’s Cross on Iona

(Cheape 1999: 25; Boyd 2007). The first two of these are illustrated

in Sanger and Kinnaird (1992: 17, 21), who point out that all the

crosses also show a harp being played along with pipes. Goodacre

(2002) provides some context on the Melrose instrument, noting:


139

“The pipes depicted are similar to many pictures of pipes seen

throughout England and Europe during this period and feature a

conical chanter with a single drone. Pipes such as these are still

played in Northern Spain and other regions of Europe.” A conical

chanter is used on the modern-day Highland pipes, producing a shrill

and nasal sound (Cannon 2002: 3) with the ability to carry over a

distance. It is worth remarking that the instrument played by the hog

is not the bellows-blown pipes which are found at a later date in

Lowland Scotland and which have recently seen a revival (Stewart

2005). The gargoyle probably belongs to the period of the rebuilding of

Melrose Abbey after its destruction in 1385 by the army of Richard II

of England (Cheape 1999: 42; Fawcett and Oram 2004: 43). The pig

bagpiper is not unique to Scotland: surviving examples of the genre

are listed by Scott (1967: 287-8), and are largely to be found in the

North of England. Pigs were depicted playing a variety of

instruments, as the book The Symbolic Pig by Sillar and Meyler

(1961) illustrates, but the authors note that pigs were most frequently

represented playing the bagpipe, and that normally a sow rather than

a boar is shown (1961: 25).

Various explanations have been offered for what the depiction of

the pig playing the bagpipes represents. John Graham Dalyell (1849:

66) asks: “Has this uncouth object originated from the sportive fancy

of the artist? Does it disguise any mystical or allegorical allusion?”

Animal bladders were traditionally used as pipe bags, so there is a

direct relationship between the instrument and animals (including the

pig) the sense of which is realised in the Scots proverb, “‘There’s

baith meat and music here’, quo’ the dog when he ate the piper’s

bag.” This same relationship is found in terms of the cat playing the

fiddle – a common motif in medieval England (Jones 2002: 156) –

since the strings of the instrument were sometimes made from cat gut.

Green (2000: 57) notes that the bagpipe “possessed traditional

associations with gluttony, animal lust, and the male genitals”, and

Scott writes: “the piping sound was considered unpleasant in the

Middle Ages, and medieval iconography took a direct means of

communicating its distaste: it represented the ugly-sounding pipes in

the arms of an ugly-sounding animal” (Scott, 1967: 289). Remnant

notes that, in the medieval period, “minstrels often dressed up as


angels, animals, grotesques and even devils, and as such they gave

pleasure to their audiences and inspiration to pictorial artists and

sculptors” (Remnant 2001: 773), and so we can see that the boundary

between animal and human was crossed both by humans representing

themselves as animals and by visual representations of animals

engaged in making music on instruments just like people. A recent

discussion of medieval illustrations of pigs playing musical

instruments is included in Jones (2002: 157-9).

THE REPRESENTATIONS OBTAINED AND PUBLISHED BY DALYELL

Sir John Graham Dalyell (1775-1851) was a prolific writer, whose

publications include Darker Superstitions of Scotland (1834), and it is

obvious from his Rare and Remarkable Animals of Scotland (1847)

containing 109 plates that he appreciated the value of illustration.

Material among his unpublished papers in Edinburgh University

Library shows him taking a great deal of care about accuracy in the

depictions of musicians intended for his Musical Memoirs of Scotland

(1849).2

For Melrose, Dalyell was able to draw on the work of two artists,

A. McAulay and J. Bower. He was concerned to find out which

illustrations most closely resembled the artefacts at the Abbey, and it

is evident that a local man was asked to make comparisons between

the drawings of the two illustrators, since a paper with the words

“Comparison of Mr Macaulay’s and Mr Bower’s drawings”

containing “answers” written by a Mr Watson, Melrose, is extant. Mr

Watson compared the illustrations in the four following instances,3

and found that Mr McAulay’s illustrations were truer to the objects

they were aiming to portray.

The Bagpipe Player: “Mr McAulay’s is the more correct of the

two. Mr Bower having attempted to restore the figure instead

of giving it its present mutilated state, moreover, his wants the

breadth of shoulder; and the position of the right arm (the light

shining through) in Mr McAulay’s, is a more faithful

representation of the stone figure.”


141

Organ Player: “The face in each of the drawings is longer than

in the original. The instrument in Mr McAulay’s has exactly

the position as that in the stone figure, the top of the instrument

being on a level with the lower part of the Ear. The right hand

corresponds exactly with the original. The lower part of the

figure is mutilated.”

Fiddler: “The face in Mr Bowers drawing approaches nearer to

the original in form, the rest of the figure as represented by Mr

McAulay with the mutilated Violin and Bow, being the more

correct, I could see only two strings to the instrument.”

Guitar: “In this figure, the Player looks a little to the right (of

himself) as in Mr McAulay’s, not to the left as in Mr Bowers.

The number of strings on the instrument, as far as I could

determine, was four.”

No observations by Watson on the hog-bagpiper are known, but

Dalyell did have illustrations from both artists. The one by Bower

was not published but can be found amongst Dalyell’s papers; it is

reproduced as Figure 3. The note on it states that it was “drawn on

the spot” by J. Bower, Melrose, 1824, and it is entitled “A spout on

Melrose Abbey”. It is clearly an inferior image to the similar one that

appears in Musical Memoirs.

Dalyell presents the hog bagpiper twice in his chapter devoted to

“Ecclesiastical Ornaments: Animals Represented as Musicians”. In

Plate XV it is “in a horizontal position, as forming part of a spout”,

and in Plate XVI, “representing it as viewed from below”, Dalyell

comments that “it is rendered somewhat more explicit” (1849: 66 n.

1). In Plate XV, the image has regrettably suffered a left-right

reversal, making it seem that the bag is at the hog’s right side. The

Dalyell Plate XV picture has been reversed in Figure 4, restoring the

original appearance in conformity with the object depicted. I have

been unable to find the original for this image among Dalyell’s papers

but the original does exist for the second image. On the page is

written “Sow playing the bagpipe”, and the illustrator’s name, A

McAulay, appears, along with the date of October 1829. The words

“Porcine Bagpipe” are written on the reverse of the sheet. The


Figure 2. The hog-bagpiper gargoyle (view from above). Photograph by

Mike Sutherland, 21 April 2007.

Figure 3. Drawing of the gargoyle by J. Bower, 1824.


143

Figure 4. Drawing of the gargoyle by A. McAulay (Dalyell 1849: Plate XV,

reversed).

Figure 5. Drawing by A. McAulay

based on the gargoyle, depicting the

pig as a quasi-human standing

figure (Dalyell 1849: Plate XVI).


illustration is identical to Dalyell’s Plate XVI as reproduced in Figure

5 apart from the shading below the bagpiper in the plate which is not

present in the drawing.

Regrettably, the second image (Fig. 5) has become detached from

its source. Looked at in isolation, it can give a deceptive impression,

suggesting that there is a corresponding object with the pig standing

on its hind legs. The online resource SCRAN, for example, presents

both images from Dalyell, but does not give a photograph of the hog

bagpiper for comparison. This illustration totally divorces the hog

from the background of Melrose Abbey and makes it look as though

it is standing on the ground (when of course it is a spout joined to the

roof).

Dalyell’s Musical Memoirs of Scotland has informed a number of

twentieth-century writers on Scottish music, and has been important

in drawing attention to the gargoyle and, I argue, has had an impact

on the way that it is perceived today. This short study has shown that

care must be taken when using his material as a source. It must be

understood as secondary, with the gargoyle being our ultimate point

of reference. However, despite the problems inherent in Dalyell’s

representations of the hog-bagpiper, we are much indebted to him for

the work he has done in providing a record of this and other early

depictions of musical instruments in Scotland at a time when the

sources were frequently in a better state of preservation than they are

today.

University of Edinburgh

[email protected]

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr Emily Lyle for her kind suggestions in

relation to this article and Mike Sutherland for his Melrose

photographs. I am grateful to Special Collections at Edinburgh

University Library for permission to reproduce the image in Figure 3

and to quote from Dalyell’s papers.


145

Notes

1 Visit to Melrose Abbey, 14 May 2006.

2 A good number of Dalyell’s original illustrations, some in colour, are

included among Dalyell’s Papers in Edinburgh University Library. The

illustrations take the form of loose-leaf, un-numbered pages, grouped

together in an A4 size book. The Dalyell Papers contain 158 volumes of

Dalyell’s notebooks, as well as letters dating from 1828 to 1847 which

include correspondence connected with music with the antiquary, David

Laing.

3 These correspond to plates II, XXIII, XXIX, and XXXIV in Dalyell

respectively. The set is still visible on the south-east corner of the

abbey, flanking two of the windows but, while three of the images can

still be made out, the one of the bagpiper is almost totally worn away.

References

Boyd, Marnie (2005 [published 2007, in this volume]). Interpreting the

Triangular Frame-Harp on the Pictish Symbol Stones. Cosmos 21.

Cannon, Roderick D. (2002). The Highland Bagpipe and its Music. 2nd edn.

Edinburgh: John Donald.

Cheape, Hugh (1999). The Book of the Bagpipe. Belfast: Appletree Press.

Dalyell, John Graham (1849). Musical Memoirs of Scotland. Edinburgh: T.

G. Stevenson.

---- (MS). Dalyell Papers (Gen. 507-8). Special Collections, Edinburgh

University Library.

Fawcett, Richard and Richard Oram (2004). Melrose Abbey. Stroud:

Tempus.

Green, Cynthia Whiddon (2000). Bagpipe. In Medieval Folklore: An Encyc-

lopedia of Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs, ed. Carl Lindahl,

John McNamara, and John Lindow, 1.57-8. Santa Barbara, CA, and

Oxford: ABC-CLIO.

Goodacre, Julian (2002). Bagpipes in the Scottish Borders: An Emerging

Jigsaw. http://www.goodbagpipes.co.uk/articles.htm#jigsaw (Accessed

21 January 2007).

http://www.goodbagpipes.co.uk/articles.htm#jigsaw


Groome, Francis H., ed. (1882-85). Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland: A

Survey of Scottish Topography, Statistical, Biographical and Historical.

Edinburgh: Grange Publishing Works. Entry for Melrose also given at

http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/towns/townhistory239.html

Jones, Malcolm (2002). The Secret Middle Ages. Thrupp, Stroud: Sutton

Publishing.

MacMillan, Duncan (1991). Old and Plain: Music and Song in Scottish Art.

In The People’s Past, ed. Edward J. Cowan, pp. 124-36 and plates i-vii.

Edinburgh: Polygon.

Milne, Adam (1743). A Description of the Parish of Melrose. Edinburgh: T.

W. and T. Ruddimans.

Remnant, Mary (2001). Entry on “Fiddle”, in Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New

Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2nd edition), vol. 8, pp. 767-

776. London: Macmillan.

Sanger, Keith and Alison Kinnaird (1992). Tree of Strings: A History of the

Harp in Scotland. Temple, Midlothian: Kinmor Music.

Scott, Kathleen L. (1967). Sow-and-Bagpipe Imagery in the Miller’s

Portrait. Review of English Studies, NS vol. 18, no. 71, pp. 287-90.

SCRAN (2007) Scottish Cultural Resources Access Network (Accessed 22

January 2007), www.scran.ac.uk

Sillar, Frederick C. and Ruth M. Meyler (1961). The Symbolic Pig: An

Anthology of Pigs in Literature and Art. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Stewart, Pete (2005). The Day it Daws: The Lowland Scots Bagpipe and its

Music 1400 to 1715. Ashby Parva, Leicestershire: White House Tune

Books.

http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/towns/townhistory239.html

http://www.scran.ac.uk/

Cosmos 21 (2005), 147-83

The Triangular Frame-Harp on the Pictish

Symbol Stones

MARNIE BOYD

The triangular shape and framed structure that the harps on the Pictish

symbol stones consistently display is of paramount importance since

the development of the triangular frame-harp, as opposed to more

ancient “un-frame-harps”, is a significant event in the organology of

the instrument. The emergence of the frame-harp presented structural

changes that directly enabled the development of the modern clarsach

and the orchestral harp (Rimmer 1969: 13). Pictorial and sculptural

evidence suggests that the triangular frame-harp was known in

ancient Greece, but only during isolated periods of time (Lawergren

2001: 883). The Pictish harps seem to announce a trend of triangular

frame-harp construction that is unbroken up to the present day. This

circumstance is likely a chief contributor in misleading some

researchers to mistakenly claim that Pictish harps mark the first

appearance of the triangular frame-harp anywhere in the world. THE REPRESENTATIONS OF HARPS ON PICTISH SYMBOL STONES

The following is a description of the eleven stones known (or

thought) to have depictions of this triangular harp. The first five

examples show solo harps without players and represent the earliest

examples of the frame-harp (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161). Example 6

(St Andrews), once interpreted as a harp with a player, is also an early

occurrence, but the presence of the harp is much less certain than in

the other examples and this possible instance is included for the sake

of completeness without being claimed as a definite case. Examples

7-9 have harps with players and are somewhat later than the previous

examples, dating from the 9th and 10th centuries (Trench-Jellicoe

1997: 161). Examples 10 and 11 are 10th century examples that occur

in Western Scotland, which is outside of the main Pictish cultural

zone (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

Marnie Boyd 148

Fig. 1. Detail of the frame-

harp on the Nigg stone as

viewed in person.

All drawings are by Marnie

Boyd with the exception of

Figs 23 and 26.

Fig. 2. Detail of the harp

and surrounding figures on

the Aberlemno stone (after

Rensch 1993: 43).

1. Nigg Stone in Easter Ross

This stone (see Fig. 1) is the oldest Pictish monument with a frame-

harp, dating to the 8th century (Rensch 1993: 41). This Class II stone

is a cross-slab erected in what was probably a place of worship for

Picts and Christians, and eventually became the grounds of the Old

Nigg Church, which was largely rebuilt in 1626 (Burt 1994: 22). In

1727, a hurricane blew down the stone, which was then moved to the

East gable of the church (Burt 1994: 22). It was accidentally broken

at the end of the 18th century by workmen gaining access to the vault

underneath (Burt 1994: 22). It was re-erected in the mid-19th century,

and moved inside the church in 1978, where it can be viewed today

(Burt 1994: 22).

The Triangular Frame-Harp on the Pictish Symbol Stones

149

The back of the Nigg stone has a rectangular panel with an arched

top in the middle of the stone, which is framed by a border divided

into twelve panels depicting key-patterns (Allen and Anderson 1993:

80). The central panel is a figure subject, depicting a bird at the top;

below it, the so-called elephant symbol; underneath, a man on foot

armed with a shield, sword and spear, having two beasts in front of

him; below this, a figure, perhaps David, slaying a lion, with a harp

and sheep near his right shoulder; at the bottom, a man on horseback

hunting a deer, which is being pursued by a hound, and followed by a

man on foot holding two disc-shaped objects resembling cymbals in

his hands (Allen and Anderson 1993: Fig. 81). This harp without a

player has often been interpreted as a biblical “David” symbol,

appearing near a figure commonly interpreted as David (Sanger and

Kinnaird 1992: 15). Allen and Anderson, in connection with this

image, speak of “the callings of the Psalmist and Shepherd being

symbolised by a harp and a sheep” (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.81).

The Nigg harp is very realistically rendered, standing in a tilted,

upright position, a position commonly used while a harp is being

played, as it is often placed directly on the ground and then tilted to

rest on a player’s shoulder.

2. Aberlemno Stone No. 3 in Angus

At the church of Aberlemno there are three symbol stones, a Class I

and two upright cross-slabs belonging to Class II (Allen and

Anderson 1993: 209). Aberlemno No. 3, an upright cross-slab of Old

Red Sandstone of rectangular shape, stands in a field half a mile north

of the church (Allen and Anderson 1993: 209). The existence of the

stone has been known as far back as 1569, and it is one of the first

monuments of its kind to have a preserved historical record (Allen

and Anderson 1993: 215). The back of the slab, which faces the field,

is divided into three panels, the first containing Pictish symbols and a

hunting scene with men on horseback (Allen and Anderson 1993:

209). The second, on the bottom left of the slab, shows a centaur with

a branch of tree under his arm (Allen and Anderson 1993: 209). The

third, at the lower right-hand side, shows what appears to be David

rending a lion’s jaw, with a sheep and a harp placed above him (see

Fig. 2) (Allen and Anderson 1993: 215). Like the Nigg stone, this

Marnie Boyd 150

harp has no player, although in this case the harp is not upright, rather

it is placed above the sheep on its fore-pillar. The harp is somewhat

weathered and, although definitely a framed-instrument, it is not as

realistic or as exquisitely rendered as the harp on the Nigg stone. The

Aberlemno harp also seems somewhat compressed, perhaps due to

the space available on the panel on which it appears. It also displays

a slight tendency toward a rhomboid shape, although this tendency is

seemingly not present enough to dissuade researchers from including

the harp in their list of triangular, framed-instruments (Ross-Jellicoe

1997: 159).

3. Gask Stone in Perthshire

Labelled the “Bore Stone of Gask”, the Gask stone in Perthshire is a

much weathered Class II, Old Red Sandstone upright cross-slab on

display on the front lawn of the Moncreiffe House by the Bridge of

Earn (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 165). It formerly stood in a field SW

from the Gask house, and has only recently been recognised as

exhibiting a triangular harp since the side with the harp is much

defaced (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 165). The front of the stone contains

the remains of a circular crossing panel and a cross-shaft panel,

flanked by quadrant panels showing realistic animals, fantastical

monsters, and figural scenes (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 165). The lower

right-hand side has a figural scene, which is very similar to that

depicted on the Aberlemno No. 3 stone (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 167).

A figure, possibly David, is wrestling with a beast, and above him are

two quadrapeds, possibly sheep, and a bear figure. Like the

Aberlemno harp, the Gask harp is placed on its fore-pillar and also is

slightly rhomboidal in shape (see Fig. 3) (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 167).

The harp lacks the “compressed” quality of the Aberlemno harp,

however, showing a more reasonable breadth of space between the

sound-board and fore-pillar, implying a more realistic space for string

placement.


151

Fig. 3. Detail of the harp on the Gask stone (after Trench-Jellicoe 1997:

162).

Fig. 4. Detail of the harp on the Kincardine stone (after Trench-Jellicoe

1997: 162).

4. Kincardine Stone in Easter Ross

Another stone recently identified as having a harp, the scene at

Kincardine, is carved onto the long edge of a recumbent grave slab

that overlooks the upper reaches of the Dornoch Firth (Trench-

Jellicoe 1997: 159). The sculptural evidence on this stone is badly

weathered, and no evidence remains for the presence of Pictish

symbols (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 159). The scene containing the harp

appears at the middle panel, middle register of the grave slab edge,

and is similar in context to the Nigg stone (see Fig. 4). A figure,

perhaps David, wearing a tunic and cloak, is pulling apart the jaws of

a quadruped. Above him on the left is a sheep, and above him on the

right is a badly worn triangular shape on a vertical plane, with a

quadruped, perhaps a lion, superimposed across it (Trench-Jellicoe

1997: 168).

Marnie Boyd 152

Fig. 5. Detail of the harp as viewed in person on the Aldbar stone.

Fig. 6. Detail of harp and player on the St Andrews Fragment (after recons-

truction in Robertson 1977: 260).

5. Aldbar Stone in Angus

This type III stone is an upright cross-slab of Old Red Sandstone,

now situated and on display in Brechin Cathedral (Allen and

Anderson 1993: 245). The oldest part of the cathedral is the Pictish

round tower, which was incorporated into the structure of the

cathedral (www.brechincathedral.org.uk). There may have been a

church on the grounds as early as the 8th century, the existing chapel

built on the foundations of this church, and the Aldbar stone

originally standing in its ancient burial-grounds (Allen and Anderson

1993: 245). The free-standing, upright harp is on the back of the

stone, placed next to objects commonly interpreted as symbols of

King David: the shepherd’s staff, a horned sheep, and figure rending

a lion’s jaw (Allen and Anderson 1993: 247). A David figure is


153

present as well, seen breaking the lion’s jaw in the third register. The

harp is quite realistic, and very similar in proportion to the harps at

Nigg and Dupplin, although the Aldbar harp is slightly more robust

(see Fig. 5) (Rensch 1993: 43).

6. St Andrews Fragment in Fife

W. Norman Robertson identified a triangular harp on a small shrine

fragment from St Andrews (Robertson 1977: 259-61). Henderson had

accepted Robertson’s interpretation of the harp for many years until

she visited the museum to view the fragment, when her position

changed, as she could not see any trace of a harp, and thought instead

that the hands are perhaps receiving a present, the fingertips holding

something (Henderson 1994: 92). This item has been excluded from

some studies on the basis that it is too uncertain; however, with the

intent of presenting all possible evidence regarding Pictish harps, it is

included in the discussion here.

On display in the Cathedral Museum at St Andrews are two pieces

of a fragment of stone-carving, which can be fitted together to form a

larger part of the original sculpture (Robertson 1977: 259). Both

pieces were found in 1893-4 in the Priory ground by Lord Bute

during the excavation of the ruins of the conventual building, the

stones eventually being joined when it was noticed that is was

possible to fit them together (Robertson 1977: 259). Just discernible

is a robed figure, now headless, with some evidence lost at the feet,

sitting on a chair that is surrounded by several kinds of creatures,

some fanciful and some characteristically Pictish in style (see Fig. 6)

(Robertson 1977: 260). Robertson feels enough evidence is present to

identify the figure as a musician, with both hands plucking the strings

of a triangular, harp-like instrument that rests on his knee (see Fig. 6)

(Robertson 1977: 260). The scene could depict David playing his

harp, similar to the scenes on the Dupplin and Monifieth stones

(Robertson 1977: 259). Enough evidence is preserved to show the

presence of a tongue and groove carpentry technique, very similar to

construction of the well-known St. Andrews tomb-shrine in the same

museum (Robertson 1977: 259).

Of particular note is the size of the harp in relation to its player,

which presents a departure from other similar scenes at Dupplin,

Marnie Boyd 154

Monifieth, and Lethendy. The harp at St Andrews is comparatively

much smaller as it appears that the player’s hand could easily span

the entire compass of the strings. All other Pictish harps with players

show an instrument of a size and proportion to its player that reflect

some realism, and are large enough to require the player to extend his

arm to reach the furthest base notes, whereas such large hands as

those at St Andrews would likely have difficulty accurately playing

such a miniature, closely-strung instrument.

Fig. 7. Detail of harp and player on the Dupplin Cross (after Allen and

Anderson 1993: 2.322, Fig. 334B).

Fig. 8. Detail of harp and player as viewed in person on the Monfieth stone.


155

7. Dupplin Cross in Perthshire

A 9th-century free-standing cross of Old Red Sandstone, the Dupplin

cross in Perthshire, was originally situated on a hilltop near Forteviot

(Allen and Anderson 1993: 319). In 2002, it was moved to the

National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh for restoration, placed

under the care of Historic Scotland, and moved to St Serf’s church,

Dunning (www.ucl.uk/archaeology). It is a Type II stone, and has a

partially legible inscription of which “Custantin Filius Fircus” can be

read, which could stand for the Latin version of the early 9th century

Pictish King, Caustantin, Son of Fergus (www.ucl.uk/archaeology).

The left side of the cross has a harper seated on a chair with

zoomorphic terminals, playing a large harp that is similar to the

instrument on the Nigg slab (see Fig. 7) (Rensch 1993: 45). The

figure is placed beneath a panel containing a beast with its head bent

back, and above a panel showing a six-cord plait (Allen and

Anderson 1993: 321). It is possible that the scene is subsumed within

a Davidic context, as David the lion killer appears on another face

(Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 159).

8. Monifieth Stone in Angus

Four sculptured stones were discovered in the foundations of the Old

Parish Church of Monifieth, and were subsequently built into the wall

of the parish church in 1812 (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.228). All

four stones are now in the National Museum of Scotland in

Edinburgh, including a class III stone with a frame-harp (see Fig. 8)

(Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.265). This 9th-century stone is a free-

standing cross of Old Red Sandstone, sculptured in relief on four

faces (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.265). The front is divided into

four panels: the top shows the lower part of the body of the crucified

Saviour with saints John and Mary on each side; below this, a pair of

saints or ecclesiastics; below again, two men holding horns in their

hands; and the bottom panel depicting a harpist seated on a chair or

throne (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.265). The harpist is playing a

large instrument with eight strings, similar in shape to the harp on the

Nigg stone (Rensch 1993: 44). Stylistically, the scene is similar to

Dupplin in the framing of the harpist in isolation, the positions of the

Marnie Boyd 156

harp and musician, and the presence of a chair (Trench-Jellicoe 1997:

160). Monifieth has no other Davidic iconography, but the harpist has

been interpreted as representing David the Psalmist (Trench-Jellicoe

1997: 160).

Fig. 9. Detail of harp and player on the Lethendy stone (after Fisher and

Greenhill 1971: 242).

Fig. 10. Detail of harp and player on the Archattan stone (after Allen and

Anderson 1993: 2.378, Fig. 393).

9. Lethendy Stone in Perthshire

The 10th-century Lethendy stone in Perthshire was first brought to

the attention of the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical

Monuments of Scotland in 1969 by the late Mr C. Gairdner, owner of

the Tower of Lethendy (Fisher and Greenhill 1971: 238). The Tower

of Lethendy was the home of the Heron family, the oldest part of the

building being a tower-house of L-plan, probably dating from the late


157

16th century (Fisher and Greenhill 1971: 238). Two carved stones,

including the Lethendy stone, have been re-used as lintels above the

first flight of the staircase, and it seems probable that the stones were

used for repairs carried out during the 17th or 18th centuries. It is

speculated that the Lethendy stone probably stood in a field near

Lethendy until it was removed to be used in the repair of the Tower

staircase (Fisher and Greenhill 1971: 238).

The upper section of the slab shows an angel immediately above

two clerics whom he is sheltering under his wings. The middle

section of the stone is a recessed panel, which depicts two standing

musicians facing each other, a dog, and a rectangular object (Fisher

and Greenhill 1971: 238).

One of the musicians is a harper (see Fig. 9), the other playing a

triple-pipe that resembles the Sardinian Launeddas (Sanger and

Kinnaird 1992: 16). The harp has a heavy sound-box and what appear

to be seven strings, and is most similar in appearance to the harp on

the Monifieth stone, although it is slightly smaller, perhaps depicting

a smaller, lighter version of the instrument, which could be played

while standing (Fisher and Greenhill 1971: 239). The dog is shown in

some detail, even a collar is visible, and there is also a vertical,

elongated rectangular instrument between the musicians, which can

be interpreted as a barrel-drum with the head turned downwards

(Fisher and Greenhill 1971: 239). The presence of the dog has been

interpreted as a depiction of the pastoral scene of David the shepherd,

who is shown accompanied by his dog in the 10th-century Byzantine

Paris Psalter (Fisher and Greenhill 1971: 239).

10. Ardchattan Stone in Argyll

This stone (see Fig. 10) occurs outside the main Pictish cultural zone,

as it is situated on the West Coast of Scotland. This area was part of

the kingdom of Dalraida, which was founded in the 6th century by the

Christianised Celts who had come over from Ireland (Jackson 1984:

11). Therefore classified as a class III monument, it is an upright

cross-slab, fractured along both sides so that the harp is only partially

visible (Allen and Anderson 1993: 377). The stone lies in the

churchyard of the Priory behind Ardchattan House within the private

burial-ground of the Campbells of Lochnell (Allen and Anderson

Marnie Boyd 158

1993: 377). It has been presumed (www.rchams.gov.uk) that the

stone was brought to the house from a nearby early Christian burial

ground

The front of the monument consists of six panels that background

the cross (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.378). Beside the lower right

portion of the cross is a panel with a vertical row of figures, starting

with a beast at the top, followed by another beast, then followed by

three, seated ecclesiastics with peaked hoods, playing instruments

(Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.387). The top musician plays a harp

(see Fig. 10), followed by a piper, and a player of an unrecognisable

instrument, which has also been interpreted as a crown (Allen and

Anderson 1993: 387). The bottom figure is of a warrior on foot,

armed with a spear and shield (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.387).

Allen and Anderson speculate that the three hooded musicians may

be intended to illustrate the account given of heaven in Revelations

(ch. iv), and may be compared with the three cowled ecclesiastics on

horseback on the stone at St Madoes, Perthshire (Allen and Anderson

1993: 2.387). This scene has also been interpreted as a representation

of the Davidic choir (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

Researchers have speculated that the implied harp is slightly more

rounded than the Pictish examples, perhaps influenced by the

musician on St Martin’s Cross on Iona, discussed in the next section

(Tench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

Fig. 11. Detail of harp and player on the Kilwinning stone (after Craig 1994:

77).

http://www.rchams.gov.uk/


159

11. Kilwinning Stone, Ayrshire

Another slab recently discovered is from the same cultural zone as the

Archattan Stone, located in Western Scotland at Kilwinning in

Ayrshire (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161). This class III monument shows

a three-sided harp juxtaposed with a profiled male figure, presumably

the player of the instrument (see Fig. 11) (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

The harpist is characteristically shown in a seated position, although,

rather oddly, no chair is present and he is too far removed from the

harp to reach the strings (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161). It has been

speculated that the Kilwinning sculptor used the same position for the

harpist as that of the rider carved beneath him, resulting in some

awkwardness in the rendering of the musician (Trench-Jellicoe 1997:

171).

It is not clear whether a David scene is intended here, as the figure

is surrounded by snake-like monsters, perhaps intending a mytholog-

ical representation of “Ragnar in the Snake Pit”, where the figure

plays the harp with his feet (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

QUADRANGULAR INSTRUMENTS

There are two further examples of harp-like instruments on stones

from the island of Iona in the west of Scotland, which are

quadrangular rather than triangular in shape. The four-cornered

instrument of these examples shows parallel sides, and is strikingly

similar to carvings found on stones in Ireland, such as an instrument

on one of a pair of pillars flanking a sandstone cross, now located

near a small church south of Carndonagh (Donegal), which dates to

the 7th century (see Fig. 12). The pillar shows a barefoot musician,

possibly David, holding a quadrangular-shaped instrument described

as a “barrel-shaped harp” (Rensch 1993: 36).

Since the Iona harps are situated in the former Kingdom of

Dalraida, a strong resemblance to similar instruments from Irish

stone-masonry is understandable given the close cultural relationship

with Ireland. It is possible that these two stones predate the Nigg

stone by half a century (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

Marnie Boyd 160

Fig. 12. Detail of quadrangular

chordophone and player as seen on

the pillar at Carndonagh, Ireland

(after Rensch 1993: 36).

Fig. 13. Detail of quadrangular

chordophone and player on St

Martin’s Cross (after Trench-Jellicoe

1997: 162).

Fig. 14. Detail of the quadrangular

chordophone on St Oran’s Cross

(after Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 162).


161

St Martin’s Cross, a Class III stone of red granite, is a free-

standing cross still erect on its ancient base, standing a short distance

from the south-west side of the cathedral of Iona (Allen and Anderson

1993: 2.381). The cross shaft displays figurative scenes in a vertical

row, one below the other (Allen and Anderson 1993: 382). The top

shows Daniel in the Lion’s Den, followed by a group of three figures,

which are in turn followed by two musicians, one of whom is playing

a quadrangular chordophone and the other playing a pipe (see Fig.

13) (Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.382). The scene is similar to that of

the Tower of Lethendy with two musicians facing each other and a

barrel-drum inserted between them (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

There are some differences, however, as the St Martin harper sits on a

low stool, the piper is kneeling, and the drum lies horizontally rather

than vertically (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161). The chordophone also

appears to be of a similar size to the Lethendy harp. Presumably any

relationship between St Martin’s Cross and the Lethendy stone

resulted from a model travelling West to East over space and time

(Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 161).

Fragments of the 8th century St Oran’s Cross are now in the

Nunnery Museum on the island of Iona (Henderson 1986: 94). This

sculpture is very worn and it is difficult to discern its figures

(Henderson 1986: 94). It appears that a harpist, possibly haloed, is

seated in a frontal position, playing a quadrangular chordophone (see

Fig. 14) (Henderson 1986: 94). Another figure shown in profile on a

high-backed chair is leaning toward the harpist (Henderson 1986: 94).

Whether or not this could be a Davidic scene is uncertain (Henderson

1986: 94). DEFINING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HARP AND ASSESSING THE

EVIDENCE FROM ANCIENT TIMES It is important to define how the Pictish harps are distinguished from more ancient forms of the instrument, and why its shape is so important in the overall development of the harp. As the previous descriptions of the Pictish harps have demonstrated, the Pictish harp is of a triangular shape, having a sound-box, string-carrying member (sometimes referred to as an “arm” or a “neck”) at an angle from the

Marnie Boyd 162

box, and the fore-pillar (see Fig. 15) (Rimmer 1977: 13). The fore- pillar, which encloses the strings in a solid frame, travels from the neck to the end of the sound-box (Rimmer 1977:13). Until the appearance of the Pictish harp, harps rarely incorporated fore-pillars into their construction (Rensch 1993: 29). Harps with no fore-pillar are subject to a type of structural disadvantage: there exists a certain amount of flexibility in the joint between the neck and the resonator, so that tightening one string would bring the neck fractionally forward, slackening other strings enough to throw them out of tune (Latham 2002: 719). Therefore, the addition of the fore-pillar found in the Pictish carvings is crucial, as its presence greatly strengthens the instrument’s entire structure (Latham 2002: 719). The frame-harp allows more strings to be added, and enables greater string tension that in turn provides more resonance and clarity (Rensch 1993: 29). These framed Pictish harps are quite consistent in showing a slender, strong, straight string-carrier that comes directly from the top of the sound-box with no apparent joint, and a straight, slender fore-pillar (Rensch 1993: 44).

Fig. 15. Diagram of triangular frame-harp.

Pictorial evidence and sculptured reliefs left behind by ancient

civilisations provide today’s researcher with the bulk of materials to

study ancient harps, as few instruments have survived up to the

present day (Rensch 1993: 3). Indeed, there is evidence of an

abundance of harp-like instruments in the ancient world, which can

be placed according to shape into one of four general categories:


163

arched (bow) harps; angled harps; triangular frame-harps; or lyres

(Rensch 193: 4).

Most Egyptian harps can be described as arched or bow shaped,

with a horizontal sound-box, probably of a one piece construction

(see Fig. 16) (Rensch 1993: 5). Angled harps probably travelled from

Asia to Egypt around 1500 BC, and these harps consist of a box and

string carrier at right angles to each other, implying a two-part

construction with a sound-box and a straight, pole-like string arm (see

Fig. 17) (Rensch 1993: 9). Lyres were also well known in the ancient

world, and some research suggests that it was the lyre (kinnor in the

Bible) that King David plays in The Old Testament to soothe the

troubled mind of Saul (see Fig. 18) (Rensch 1993: 17). However,

lyres are considered apart from the harp, members of a different

organological class from harps (Rensch 1993: 12). The lyre has four

rather than three corners (a rectangular rather than triangular shape),

with strings that run parallel to the sound-board, not perpendicular to

and “standing free” of the sound-board as they are in harps (Latham

2002: 719) The lyre has fewer strings than the harp (most ancient

lyres have seven strings), and the lyre’s strings do not vary in length

(and therefore, pitch) as significantly as they do in a triangular-shaped

instrument (Rensch 1993: 12) Evidence indicates that triangular

frame-harps were known in ancient Greece, although they seem to

have existed only during isolated periods of time and were

subsequently forgotten (Lawergren 2001: 883). The Greek Cycladic

islands provide the earliest sculptural evidence of the harp in the

Aegean region (Rensch 1993: 18). Some nine marble statues showing

a seated musician playing an arched, harp-like instrument have been

found at various grave-sites on the islands, the statues dating from

2800 to 2300 BC (Rensch 1993: 18). The statues are small: the largest,

fourteen inches in height, has a player holding a triangular-shaped

instrument on its lap, with the sound-board placed on the right thigh

(see Fig. 19) (Rensch 1993: 18). The instruments are unstrung, so it is

unclear whether a horizontally-held harp or lyre is intended here

(Rensch 1993: 18). It has also been suggested that the fore-pillar in

this case is actually a long, curved extension to the neck, which

would classify this instrument as an arched harp (Lawergren 2001:

883).

Marnie Boyd 164

Fig. 16. Detail of an Egyptian

arched harp from a wall painting

from an XVIIIth dynasty tomb at

Thebes. (Chicago, Oriental Institute,

after Rensch 1993: 7).

Fig. 17. Angular harp found in an

Egyptian tomb (reproduction).

(New York, Metropolitan Museum

of Art, Crosby Brown Collection,

1889, after Rensch 1993: 10).

Fig. 18. Detail of an ancient Greek

lyre from a Bell-Crater by CA

Painter (after Trendall 1989, Red

Figure Vases of Southern Italy, p.

168).


165

Fig. 19. Marble statuette of a musician, c. 2700 BC from a Cycladic island

grave (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1947, after

Rensch 1993: 19).

Fig. 20. Detail of an ancient Greek frame-harp from a Skyphoid Pyxis:

Bridal Scene by a “Lloyd Group” painter (after Trendall 1989, Red Figure

Vases of South Italy and Sicily, p. 237).

Marnie Boyd 166

Artwork on vases from ancient Greece and Italy suggests a type of

frame-harp did appear briefly between 450 and 350 BC in this region,

but it seems to have disappeared with the demise of classical Greek

civilisation (Lawergren 2001: 883). These frame-harps are angled

harps with a slender, rod-like column, or a column in the form of a

bird, and are generally played by an attractive young male or female

(see Fig. 20) (Rensch 1993: 22). Ancient Greek representations of the

lyre far out-number those of the harp, however, suggesting that the

symmetrical lyre was preferred to the asymmetrical harp (Rensch

1993: 20). Angular harps made a comparatively late appearance in

Greece, arriving around 400 BC (Lawergren 2001: 888). Why the

Greeks did not adopt the angular harp and its wide compass, which

had been enjoyed in Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Egypt since the 2nd

millennium, but instead seemed to prefer the lyre, is not clear

(Lawergren 2001: 888). This situation resulted in a separation of lyre

and harp culture in ancient Greece, the harps of the 5th century BC

retaining a “foreign” instrument status along with condemnation by

Plato, the harp being among the instruments that Plato and Aristotle

exclude from their ideal states (McKinnon 2001: 735).

THE RE-EMERGENCE OR RE-INVENTION OF THE FRAME-HARP IN THE

CHRISTIAN ERA

Whether or not the Picts could have been influenced by knowledge of

the Greek frame-harp is unknown. Yet, all archaeological evidence of

the triangular frame-harp ceases after 350 BC, and it does not appear

again until much later on the 8th century Nigg stone (Lawergren

2001: 883). The lyre, however, appears to have maintained its

popularity during this period of time, and was an instrument

commonly used by Romans and Northumbrians, peoples who had

substantial contact with Pictland (Porter 1983: 259). In Ireland, there

are depictions of stringed instruments resembling lyres that precede

the earliest Pictish harp carvings, including the one on the pillar near

Carndonagh, discussed above (Rensch 1993: 36). It is likely that St

Columba and his successors would have brought the lyre (cruit) to

Pictland with them on their missions from Ireland, as Irish clerics

were accustomed to travelling with this instrument (Porter 1983:


167

252). The cruit of Goodly St Kevin of Glendalough, who died in 618,

is described by Giraldus Cambrensis in the 12th century as a precious

relic, still venerated in his time (Porter 1983: 252). A class III Pictish

cross-slab fragment, Invergowrie No. 1, Forfarshire, shows an

ecclesiastic holding a “remarkable object” (Allen and Anderson 1993:

256): a circular ring or disc suspended by two vertical cords from a

horizontal bar or belt (see Fig. 21). The possibility has been suggested

that this object is some kind of instrument, perhaps the small lyre of

the travelling missionaries (Henderson 1986: 90).

Fig. 21. Detail of figure and circular object as seen on Invergowrie No. 1

(after Stuart 1856-57: 1.27-8, pl. 88).

This set of circumstances has led to controversy as to whether the

frame-harp is a Scottish (Pictish), Irish or English invention (or re-

invention due to its previous existence in Greece). This debate also

concerns the provenance of the clarsach, as it would seem that the

inventor of the frame-harp would likely be the author of the clarsach,

which is an instrument that is very important to the musical heritage

of these countries. Those who favour Ireland as the frame-harp’s

country of origin refer to the greater age of the Irish chordophone

carvings (albeit of lyres) and the influence of the country’s

missionaries upon Pictland, as these clerics could have been carrying

prototypes of triangular frame-harps into Scotland (Porter 1983: 252).

It seems that implied within this view of the Irish invention of the

triangular frame-harp is an understanding that the frame-harp could

Marnie Boyd 168

have naturally developed from the lyre-shaped instrument that was

seemingly popular in Irish culture. However, the substantial structural

differences between the harp and lyre do not support this hypothesis,

as the lyre’s parallel string placement to the sound-board and limited

compass affect both the approach and technique of a player, and what

kind of music one can play upon it. Lyres are inherently more suited

to melody-playing, whereas the frame-harp is capable of a much more

intricate kind of music (Latham 2002: 565).

It is useful when comparing the form and purpose of the harp to

that of the lyre, to look at accounts of musical instruments in ancient

Greece between the 4th and 5th centuries BC, as both harps (including

frame-harps) and lyres were present in Greek musical culture of this

period (Maas 1992: 75). Opinions relating to the performance on

lyres and harps indicate that these instruments were regarded as quite

distinct from each other, one capable of playing increasingly intricate

music that was the fashion of the time (Mass 1992: 75). During this

period, the lyre typically had seven strings, and had enjoyed an

extended popularity in ancient Greece, as all kinds of harps had

remained largely invisible in the Greek world (with the exception of

Cycladic culture, c. 2200 BC) (Maas 1992: 76). The surge in

popularity of a more complex type of music seems to coincide with

sudden appearance of the harp (Maas 1992: 75). Some greeted this

“foreign” instrument with suspicion, Plato calling for the banning of

the “many-stringed” instruments and their makers from the city,

proclaiming that the only instruments that should be allowed to

remain were those that do not participate in polychordia. The Greek

lyra and kithara (types of lyres) would have been safe under such a

decree, but the many-stringed harps would surely have been banished.

Criticism is also directed at the poet-musician, Timotheus, his

complex music requiring performance on an instrument of many

strings (Maas 1992: 75). Over three hundred years later, the Roman

author Cicero remarks in Laws that the old Spartan laws on music

were strict, “If indeed it be true,” he says, “that the severe Spartans

ordered all strings above seven to be cut from Timotheus’

instrument” (Maas 1992: 79).

Greek accounts of the harp and lyre seem to imply that these

instruments were not experienced simply as extensions of each other,

but maintained very different musical functions and identities. To


169

assume that one would easily develop from the other seems

dismissive of these vast differences, and assumes that the player of

the lyre is desirous of an instrument that is capable of a much more

complex kind of music. Forces of tradition are not easily overcome in

artefact-evolution, and the musical, operational, ritual, aesthetic, and

technological factors of a society can promote or inhibit change

(Lawson 1981: 242). All of the evidence suggests that the instrument

most widely cultivated, developed, and admired among the Picts was

the frame-harp, whereas the Irish were not portraying the frame-harp

in their iconography until well after the Nigg stone was erected

(Porter 1983: 255).

The argument that places England as the locus for the frame-harp

is largely reliant upon certain perceived trends in insular art1 that

might have affected Pictish sculptors (Henderson 1986: 110). In her

work on the David Cycle in Pictish art, Isobel Henderson concludes

that Pictish sculptors were basing their models on surviving southern

English art and manuscript models, which were in turn possibly

reflecting East Christian art (Henderson 1986: 110). As she interprets

all Pictish harps as placed within a Davidic context, her conclusion is

that the Picts were continually using a southern single model for the

harp (Henderson 1986: 111). This conclusion largely forsakes the

Picts as a creative people interested in expressing their own vision of

the David story, ultimately assigning any unique qualities to a

Southern source, even if that source has not been found. This view is

contrary to the position I have taken here, which seeks to defend

Pictish artists as capable of their own creative design in the form of

the Pictish harp. In terms of influence, the Celtic church produced, in

its inimitable style, gospels and psalters, and it has been posited that

the Book of Kells was influenced by the Pictish stones (Purser 1992:

31).

The possible occurrence of a triangular chordophone on an early

9th-century English column at Masham offers some support for

Henderson’s point of view (Henderson 1986: 111). However, the

surface of the Masham column is severely weathered, and all that

remains discernible is a relief that suggests a figure holding a

triangular shape (Lawson 1981: 232). If the shape is intended to be a

chordophone, it is impossible to determine if it is framed or angular,

or if it is intended to be a realistic instrument. The column does not

Marnie Boyd 170

predate the Nigg stone, and there are no other parallels for the

occurrence of this instrument in any English context at this time

(Lawson 1981: 232).

It has also been surmised that Pictish interest in King David is

derived from exposure to Psalters, mainly of continental origin,

illustrating David with his harp, the Picts more or less copying these

examples (Porter 1983: 259). Yet, this theory does not wholly make

sense, as the early stones are actually older than any relevant psalters.

Fig. 22. Detail of a figure with harp on folio 83 of the Utrecht Psalter, Psalm

cxlix illustration detail (after Rensch 1993: 32).

The earliest known drawings of the harp are found in an early 9th

century Carolingian psalter, originally written and illustrated at the

monastary of Hautvillers near Reims in France (Rensch 1998: 30).

Designated as the Utrecht psalter, due to its location in Utrecht,

Holland, it seems to reflect a composite of various influences rather

than being a copy of a single earlier source (Rensch 1998: 30). Ten

small figures holding harps are included in the psalter’s illustrations,

eight of which seem to be derivative of Egyptian angular harps, and

lack a pillar (Rensch 1998: 31). Two figures on folio 83 seem to be

holding frame-harps (see Fig. 22), marking a departure on the part of

the artist from imitating earlier styles to perhaps using a contemp-

orary form (Rensch 1998: 31). If indeed a frame-harp was in

existence in continental Europe at this time, it seems possible that a

prototype could have travelled south out of Pictland, given the earlier


171

date of the Nigg stone and the abundance of frame-harps on the

Pictish symbol stones.

The overall large size of the Pictish harps is a unique characteristic

worthy of special consideration,2 as they are much larger than

successive depictions of harps found on Irish and non-Pictish Scottish

crosses and in Psalters, as these later depictions show instruments

small enough to rest on a player’s knees or to be held while played

(Sanger and Kinnaird 1992: 21). Pictish harps, sometimes reaching

from the floor to the crown of a seated player’s head, are also quite

large in comparison to the clarsachs that succeed them. The harps on

the Aldbar, Monifieth, and Nigg stones show only seven or eight

strings, but it is possible that these depictions do not accurately reflect

the reality of the instrument, as carving a large number of strings into

a rather small image would have been quite difficult (Porter 1983:

259).

This feature is very suggestive about how Pictish harps might

have been played, as they likely would have been capable of the

polychordia that delighted and distressed ancient Greece. This would

suggest that polyphony might have been a function of these harps, as

the parallel fourths, fifths, sixths and octaves found in early medieval

organum would have been easily achievable on these instruments

(Sanders 1964: 264). In his work on early polyphony, Ernest H.

Sanders finds support for a northern influence as a strong contributor

in the expansion of the organum repertoire to include previously

impermissible intervals such as thirds (Sanders 1964: 264). It seems

plausible that the Picts could have been playing an elaborate music on

their harps, reflective of the sophisticated but not rigid symbol stones,

or the subsequent Celtic love of graceful, formal patterning (Sanders

1964: 264). Perhaps the Picts pioneered the polyphonic technique of

superlative harp playing in Scotland, which was noted by Giraldus

Cambrensis in the 12th century, “It is wonderful how, despite the

great rapidity of the fingers, musical proportion is preserved. By their

faultless art, the melody is sustained through the most complicated

arrangements of notes” (O’Meara 1951: 88). Giraldus Cambrensis

follows this comment with a statement declaring how the Scots far

exceed the Irish in musical science and skill (O’Meara 1951: 88).

Marnie Boyd 172

THE SYMBOLISM OF KING DAVID

It is clear from the class II and III stones that the Picts were inspired by Christian concepts, and were using certain ideas selectively. The biblical king, David, appears to have arrested their imaginations, as he is often portrayed on the stones slaying a lion, and is possibly symbolised in the form of the harp. Henderson states that David iconography is an 8th-century development in insular art, when its iconographical range was starting to broaden (Henderson 1986: 101). She suggests that the harp had two primary roles in Pictish iconography: to function as a component part in Davidic scenes that show him as a musician, and to identify a Davidic context in scenes where the presence of a David figure is somewhat ambiguous since he is not acting as a musician, such as at Nigg, Aberlemno, Gask, Kincardine, and Aldbar (Trench-Jellicoe 1997: 159).

Martin van Schaik’s book, The Harp in the Middle Ages, is concerned with the interpretation of the medieval harp as a Christian symbol. Although his book does not consider Pictish harps and most of the artwork he is concerned with is later than the demise of Pictish society, it is very useful when considering possible Christian ideas concerning the harp that might have had an impact on Pictish society. Van Schaik discusses King David in depth, as this Biblical figure is pictured with the harp innumerable times in a variety of guises (van Schaik 2005: 9). He feels that the harp in a Davidic context reveals three primary motifs (van Schaik 2005: 58):

1 A means of identification as an attribute of David.

2 David playing the harp as a reference to his role as poet and composer of Psalms, a motif that has a relationship to the text of I Samuel 16:23. His harp playing before Saul can also be explained as the imposition of order on the microcosmos, a motif with affinity for the Greek idea of “harmony of the soul” as put forward by Plato and other Greek writers.

3 David seen tuning the harp, an act that symbolises the imposition of order on the macrocosmos. The Wisdom of Solomon 11:21 is perhaps the inspiration for this design, the verse announcing that God has ordered all things by size, number and weight, and therefore stimulating an interest in mensura illustration themes. Van Schaik notes that David


173

functioned as a prefiguration of Christ in Christian iconography since David’s ordering implications enabled him to function as the figura of the Christ-Logos who maintains the same order.

If the Picts were sufficiently aware of the symbolic implications of

David and his harp, it seems reasonable to assume that the presence of the instrument in their iconography does more than substantiate a Davidic context. Its frequent use, especially in scenes where there is no player, as at Nigg or Aldbar, or where the Davidic context is not entirely clear, as at Monifieth where there are no complementary Davidic symbols, could identify a set of symbolic ideas that had significant appeal to their creative imaginations, and were best expressed by the presence of a harp. By threading these ideas back to the hypothesis that the harp was a functioning instrument in Pictish society, it leads to assumptions about the use of the instrument. Perhaps it was used ceremonially or in religious settings, where its very presence could act as a material representation of the symbolic “ordering” function of David and a prefiguration of a Christ figure.

It seems likely that the harp enjoyed a high status, a wondrous tool with the power to soothe and ease troubled spirits, fostering the Greek notion of the “harmony of the soul”, and worthy of playing before a king as David played for Saul. The fact that some of the musicians on the stones are seated on chairs or thrones is relevant, as chairs were a rare luxury at this time and their presence could indicate the high status of the player (Rensch 1993: 36). THE SYMBOLISM OF THE TRIAD: THE DELTA HARP AND PRE-CHRISTIAN COSMOLOGY Systems of threes are important to Christianity, present in the idea of the Holy Trinity, and practised musically in the movements and order of the Catholic Mass, which is split into three successive stages (introductory prayers, the Liturgy of the Word, and the Liturgy of the Eucharist) to represent the triune of God (Hanning 2002: 22). A consideration of delta-shaped instruments in medieval writings is useful for examining the importance of the triangular form and idea of the trinity in Christian iconography.

Christian symbolism attached to instruments in the Middle Ages invariably had roots in the biblical exegesis of the Greek and Latin

Marnie Boyd 174

Church fathers in the first centuries AD (van Schaik 2005: 63). These church fathers had rejected musical instruments for moral reasons, but were faced with a dilemma upon finding countless references to instruments in the Old Testament (van Schaik 2005: 63). Finding a theological explanation for the making of musical instruments became an imperative, resulting in musical allegory (van Schaik 2005: 63). A large number of medieval texts from the early 9th to 11th centuries include a description of a “delta harp”, which bears a close resemblance to the form of the Greek capital letter Delta () (van Schaik 2005: 62). These texts emphasise the delta form as a characteristic morphology for various instruments, including the cithara or psalterium, and are often accompanied by allegorical commentary and exegetic interpretations of objects from Holy Scriptures (van Schaik 2005: 63). Whether or not this delta harp actually existed is unknown, as drawings of the instrument do not depict a morphology that is entirely feasible (see Fig. 23), and the reality of the instrument was not of primary importance to the Church Fathers (van Schaik 2005: 90). However, examination of the exegesis of the delta harp is very revealing: it indicates that the number 3 is especially associated with delta instruments, and that the triangular form is viewed as a symbol of the trinity (perfection) (van Schaik 2005: 90). Additionally, King David has a close association with the instrument, as he was considered in the Middle Ages to have been the discoverer of the psalterium triangulum (van Schaik 2005: 86).

It seems possible that early ecclesiastics sent into Pictland could have been in possession of this symbolic knowledge concerning instruments, imparted these ideas to the Picts, who in turn used them to their own ends. Pictish iconography that bears some resemblance to delta harp illustrations is present on two Pictish stones that have been mentioned by Henderson as “doubtful examples” of David with a harp (Henderson 1986: 90). The first, Kirriemuir in Angus, is a class II cross-slab (Allen and Anderson 1993: 227). On the back of the slab is a frontal haloed figure, seated on a throne and holding a (triangular?) object. On the right of the figure is a triangular, framed object of the same height as the zoomorphic throne. The framed object appears to be split into three sections, and has strings passing over it from top to bottom. It displays no discernible sound-board. Similarly, another type II cross-slab fragment at Kingoldrum, Angus shows a framed-object resembling that at Kirriemuir (see Fig. 25). The fragment shows the lower half of an enthroned figure seated in


175

Fig. 23. Page from St Blasien, De cantu et musica sacra, II by Martin

Gerbert. Pl. 25, fig. 10, Dardanus passages with illustration. Figure as shown

in van Schaik 2005: 227.

Fig. 24. Detail of seated figure and framework with strings on the

Kirriemuir stone (after Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.227, fig. 239B).

Fig. 25. Detail of lower part of enthroned figure and framework with strings

on Kingoldrum stone (after Allen and Anderson 1993: 2.227, fig. 238B).

Marnie Boyd 176

profile, facing the lower part of a framed object that is in two segments. This framed object also has strings moving up from its base, and does not clearly indicate the presence of a sound-board.

Although these triangular, framed objects are labeled “doubtful” harp examples by Henderson, as stated above. Yet, when compared to the morphology of delta harps as they appear in medieval illustrations, the commonalities among the instruments could revive the idea that the Pictish examples may be representing musical instruments, but in a similar fashion to the delta harps. The triangular “delta” form of these framework objects is the most obvious similarity to the delta harps. Additionally, like delta harps, both Pictish objects have strings placed inside of the framework, but how they are attached at any of the extreme points is unclear. Neither the delta harps nor these two Pictish objects indicate the clear presence of a sound-board, underscoring the idea that it may be the symbolic rendering of a musical instrument that is paramount in all instances. The delta harps are drawn with a robust, triangular frame, and the example at Kingoldrum seems to depict this construction as well. Although framed, the outlines of the triangle at Kirriemuir do not appear as thick, as it seems instead to be placed within some kind of rectangular framework that implies heavier construction than the internal triangle. This is not entirely out of character with the delta harps, however, as even though they do not appear inside framed objects as in the Pictish case delta harps are shown alongside rectangular and square forms (with similarly robust frames) that are meant to exemplify other Old Testament instruments. Both objects at Kirriemuir and Kingoldrum are shown next to enthroned figures, which could indicate a connection with Kind David, who was heavily associated with the delta harp, as mentioned earlier.

These framed objects are obviously not identical to delta harps, the Pictish examples exhibiting their own unique characteristics. Perhaps the most obvious distinction is the division of the Kirriemuir object into three segments, deviating from the delta harp, which is divided into two, unequal sections. (Due to the damage to the stone, it is not clear how many sections are intended at Kingoldrum.) However, the similarities between these objects and the Delta harps are intriguing.

Additionally, I find a striking resemblance between the Kirriemuir throned figure, holding what I see as a triangular object, and an illustration of King David in the 12th-century manuscript, Hortus


177

Deliciarum. On folio 59r, King David is seated on a similar zoomorphic throne, holding a delta instrument, a Psalterium dicitur decacordum, in a manner somewhat similar to the Kirriemuir figure (see Fig. 26). The Kirriemuir stone likely precedes the Hortus Deliciarum and, when considered along with the Kingoldrum cross-slab, could point to the early presence in Pictland of medieval biblical exegesis concerning Old Testament instruments. The application of this assumption to the equally-assumed Pictish invention of the frame-harp is very intriguing. It suggests the Picts, in the construction of the harp, could have been motivated by the physical shape of the delta harp as well as its close association with King David, and the Christian symbolism attached to triangular concepts. It also provides an alternative to Henderson’s theory that the Picts were largely influenced by an 8th-century development in insular art. Instead, creative influences are traced to an earlier time, perhaps as early as the 5th century, when exegesis of Old Testament instruments could have been presented by the first missionaries to the region.

Fig. 26. Folio 59r from Hortus Deliciarum of Herrod of Hohenburg,

depicting King David with a psalterium decachordum (after van Schaik

2005: 227).

Triadic symbolism is emphasised in Christianity but it was also

present in the older Indo-European culture that received the new religion, and the Picts might have been influenced by Indo-European triadic cosmology during the time of the introduction of the frame-harp. The Irish cruit (“lyre”, later “harp”) was said symbolically to have three strings, as expressed in “The Lay of Caoilte’s Urn” which clearly associates the three strings with three types of music, as one

Marnie Boyd 178

string induces crying, the second, laughing, and the third, sleep, and Greek parallels imply that the three strings were related to the concept of two extremes and a mean found also in the cosmology in extra-musical contexts (Lyle 2007: 74-81). This function of the harp is reminiscent of the “ordering” symbolism of David at his harp as presented by van Schaik. According to an Irish triad, there were “three things that constitute a harper”, and here again are the three types of music: grief, joy, healing/sleep. In Celtic mythology, there are many tales of harpists using their instrument to manipulate an audience, sometimes inducing sleep in order to usurp control of a situation (Lyle 2007: 76). The harp is capable of imposing threefold response-structure on its audience, and Greek ordering concepts found in Christian and pre-Christian cosmologies, such as the “harmony of the soul” and Plato’s “just state”, manifest in its sounds.

Threefold thinking could also be present in the physical appear-ance and structure of the Pictish harp. In a piece that examines relationships between musical forms, instruments, and cultural systems in Africa, Klaus P. Wachsmann and Russell Kay (1971: 402) discuss how instruments can express very close ties to a cultural system of beliefs in a variety of fashions. They offer the harp-lute gingiru as a highly developed example, as it is a physical model of an African cultural belief system, with the trough-shaped wooden resonator representing an image of the world. The triangular frame-harp could be seen as an instrument reinforcing and representing the triadic cosmology, as its very structure and shape evince the core qualities of the system. The harp displays three basic parts: sound-box, string-carrier, and fore-pillar, with the sound-box and string- carrier representing the extremes that are supported and strengthened by the intermediate position of the fore-pillar. Harmony and balance are key issues for the instrument, as it depends on a controlled type of tension that distributes and equalises the stress borne from the strings pulling against the sound-board, thereby keeping the instrument from tearing itself apart while maintaining the tension necessary to produce a louder, clearer sound. Symbolically, the instrument works well as a representation of the system as a whole, as it can be seen to physically demonstrate Plato’s concept of a just state, all parts working together to create a harmonious state of tension and support.

At the period in time during which these harps were being carved in stone, Pictish native thought and expression were intermingling with Christian ideas. At this point, Christian conversion was not a


179

brutal, abrupt process, but a gradual event, which tolerated the co-existence of old religions and rituals during the conversion period, occasionally absorbing pagan notions into its dogma (Jackson 1984: 201). In fact, the Pictish harp could be viewed as a physical representation of complementary, fundamental concepts within Indo-European and Christian belief structures. To take this idea even further, perhaps the unique cultural position of a society undergoing conversion was particularly conducive to the invention of the frame-harp. If the Picts were able to maintain their Indo-European belief structures and religious ideas while allowing themselves to be inspired by new Christian concepts, they would be enjoying a unique period of creative permissiveness that would probably disappear once Christianity ossified within their culture and their old beliefs became inert. Maybe the Picts, who were expressively aware enough to create unique and mature symbolic ideas on their stones, were responding creatively to the danger of transition through new artistic tools, such as the frame-harp.

CONCLUSION It seems fitting to conclude with an acknowledgment of the speculative nature of interpreting the Pictish symbol stones. My approach, which posits the harps as uniquely Pictish instruments that are reflective of their culture, is intended to broaden the scope of analysis beyond viewing these instruments as identifiers of King David, copied from another culture. Hopefully, some new research possibilities have been presented as well. Further comparative exploration of ancient Greek and Northern European attitudes towards lyre and harp cultures could be suggestive as to how regional musical ecologies affected instrument use and change. Van Schaik’s work on the symbolism of the medieval harp offers much to the researcher of Pictish harps, including his work on David symbolism and biblical exegesis of musical instruments touched upon here. The presence of Indo-European cosmology in Pictish culture and its instruments is another avenue of exploration that could be greatly expanded upon from what I have presented in this paper.

University of Edinburgh

[email protected]

Marnie Boyd 180

Notes 1 Insular art is primarily abstract and decorative, defined by sets of linear

motifs and patterns, and appears to have flourished between AD 600 and

900 (Henderson and Henderson 2004: 15).

2 In his article “The Harp as a Cosmic Symbol”, Dane Rudhyar discusses

the unique status of the harp as one of two instruments (the other being

the piano) that can play all of the major key-tones of a mode at once,

and has a sound-board designed to prolong notes. Rudhyar describes

this set of characteristics as resulting in “seas of sound” that express a

“collective soul” rather than individual identity (Rudhyar 1923: 8). This

“sea of sound” could have had significant cosmological and creative

value to the Picts, perhaps best realised sonically in the sounds of the

frame-harp.

3 Pictish harps are much larger than their most obvious descendant, the

clarsach, which uses metal strings. Metal strings would not have been a

possibility for Pictish harps, as their particular dimensions would not

have been able to withstand the pull of metal strings on the sound-board

(Bannerman 1991: 8), and researchers have suggested that braided or

twisted horse-hair might have been used, as this material is light enough

for the harp, and can give a very pleasing sounding note (Jarman 1960-

1: 154-75). It is also quite likely that the sound-board was made of

leather, as leather sound-boards are still commonly used on instruments

throughout the world, and would have been a very suitable match for the

horsehair strings (Jones 1825: 102; cf. the poem by a Welshman

published by Andrew Borde in 1547 which describes a harp as being

made of a mare’s skin with horsehair strings (Furnivall 1870: 126). If

the materials used for the strings and sound-board were of animal origin,

this would have strongly linked the instrument to the mythical or

symbolic resonances that animals held for the Picts (cf. Kárpáti 1989:

9).

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Cosmos 21 (2005), 185-98

Lives Set in Stone: The Preoccupations of

the Elites of Early Historic Scotland

KATE ANDERSON INTRODUCTION

The Early Historic carved stone monuments found in Scotland have long been subject to intense scrutiny, the meaning of their symbols and the function of the stones frequently the main topic of debate (Close-Brooks 1980; Jackson 1993; Shepherd and Shepherd 1977; Southwick 1981). It is rarer for their art historical value or potential function to be set aside in favour of studies focusing on those stones depicting human existence and interaction. However, when approached in this way it becomes clear that a rich source of information on the preoccupations and values of the elites of Early Historic Scotland is before our eyes. Although only found on a relatively small proportion of the total number of stones, a significant number depict human activity, frequently dominated by the themes of religion (in the form of Christian imagery), warfare and hunting. Examination of the relative proportions these stones are found in, their specific content and context, and the arrangement of different elements within them should shed light on how these themes relate to each other, and what level of importance they were accorded culturally. METHODOLOGY Defining the parameters of an appropriate data set is not an easy task; at present, many stones mentioned in early works (e. g. Buist 1851; Laing 1851; Stuart 1854) are kept in private hands or their where-abouts are unknown or they have become weathered to such an extent that examination and analysis are no longer possible. The catalogue compiled by Allen and Anderson in 1903 was extraordinarily com-prehensive and remains a primary reference point for scholars in this area. Thanks to the enormous corpus of illustrations their volumes contain, it is possible to consider evidence from stones no longer

Kate Anderson 186

available for immediate study. Therefore, this paper has taken as its data set all the monuments illustrated in Allen and Anderson (1993 [1903]), with a few exclusions. Those stones that are too weathered to be legible have been excluded, as have those featuring only creatures with both human and animal characteristics. While the majority of the monuments can be attributed to Pictland, there are stones, such as that at Barochan,1 found elsewhere in Scotland and these have been deliberately included in order to form as comprehensive an under-standing of these monuments as possible.

The choice of the word “elite” in the title is deliberate. The stones forming the basis of this study would almost certainly have been erected by, or for, the elites of Scotland at this time, rather than the common people, and therefore we may assume that their content will reflect the preoccupations and values of the elites. However, in this case the elites may be separated into the secular and the religious. Church leaders, although possibly drawn from the same groups of people and benefiting from the same wealth, culture and connections, would have had different needs, desires and perspectives than their secular counterparts. There are several stones which feature exclus-ively ecclesiastical scenes, be they Bible stories or simple depictions of religious figures, as seen from their garments and accessories, without involvement of secular issues. Therefore, since these are more likely to have been erected by ecclesiasts, they have been excluded from this study. What remains is a series of stones featuring identifiable, secular scenes depicting human figures, although inter-pretation of these is not necessarily easy.

Interpretation is based on two levels of understanding: icon-ography, identifying what it is we are seeing, and iconology, exploring the deeper, religious meaning of the icon (Alcock 2003: 362). The first level is not always a simple matter, since the condition of the stone, an understanding of animal physiology and behaviour and the material culture in question each need to be taken into account. The second level may also present difficulties to modern researchers. Of the seventy-five monuments featuring secular humans, only one, the Dunkeld 2 stone, is a Class I; the remainder are Class II or Class III, and roughly date to the 7th-9th centuries AD (Alcock 2003: 372). Since the defining feature of the Class II and III stones is their Christian imagery, Dunkeld 2 will not be included in this analysis in order to preserve a cohesive dataset. Given the presence of a cross or religious scenes on the remaining seventy-four

Lives Set in Stone in Early Historic Scotland

187

monuments, these might be expected to have been produced by a Christian society. However, 21st-century researchers may not initially be sufficiently well-versed in early Christian theology to identify many of the scenes that might have beeen instantly recognisable to those who experienced the stones as part of their landscape. Bailey (1996: 3) points out that an eagle on the Minnigaff stone that modern researchers might identify as a symbol of St John the Evangelist is actually, on the basis of 8th-century Augustinian texts, more likely to be a symbol of Jesus Christ, and such images should be considered with an “educated monastic eye”. It is therefore important to bear in mind that what might appear to be a simple hunting scene could have been intended as a representation of early Christian theology. RESULTS Once the evidently ecclesiastical figures have been eliminated, a corpus of seventy-five illustrations of stones showing secular scenes is available in Allen and Anderson. Of these, seventeen are fragments that could not be categorised with certainty.2 The remaining fifty-eight illustrations were classified for analysis as follows:

1) Hunting Scenes 2) War Scenes 3) Complex Scenes 4) Armed Men 5) Unarmed Men

The first three categories fall into a subgroup, as they show multiple images depicting an event or action. The hunting scenes are those featuring men (and, on the Hilton of Cadboll stone, a woman), both on foot and horseback, with a combination of hounds and wild animals, usually deer. The war scenes are those that feature armed men, on foot or horseback, carrying a range of defensive or offensive weapons – those stones where the only weapon is a spear will not be included within this category as spears were also a principal hunting weapon. There are seventy-one entire, decipherable figures on Category 2 stones that carry a weapon or ride a horse and the panoply of each individual varies widely, including swords (SW), spears (SP), shields (SH), and other weapons (OW) (Figs 1 and 2). Twenty-two

Kate Anderson 188

figures riding horses but carrying no weapons are included as warriors based on their hierarchical association with other figures carrying weapons. Fig.1. Frequency of warriors with one item in the War Scenes category.

Fig. 2. Frequency of warriors with two items in the War Scenes category.

Only two figures display the full panoply of horse, sword, spear and shield. This category always demonstrates some level of hierarchy between the figures, through their relative sizes, positioning or range of equipment carried. An example of such a hierarchy is to be found on the Dull slab, showing a horseman carrying shield and spear at the top with three figures on foot to the lower right carrying only shields.

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10

15

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Mounted warriors Warriors on foot

0

1

2

3

4

5

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Mounted warriors Warriors on foot


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Occasionally these figures are also actually engaged in combat, as on Aberlemno 2 and Sueno’s stone at Forres, providing an impression of the differing levels of command, skill and wealth within an armed force. Complex scenes are those that show multiple categories of activity. They may include hunting, combat and domestic scenes on the same slab. These tend to be difficult to interpret, as their arrangement gives no narrative clues as to the events depicted, or the reasons for their depiction.

The last two categories contain images without any form of context, in that they do not depict specific activities or, where they show more than one figure, do not show any obvious form of relationship. The Armed Men category depicts riders or men on foot individually or in a group, with weapons but without any indication of a hierarchical group, while the Unarmed Men category shows riders or, more occasionally, men on foot, individually or in a group, without weapons. An additional 17 stones (23%) are uncategorised fragments (see note 2).

Categories No. of Stones Percentage of Total Stones

1 Hunting Scenes 17 23%

2 War Scenes 10 13%

3 Complex Scenes 9 12%

4 Armed Men 14 18%

5 Unarmed Men 8 11%

Table 1. Categories of Pictish stones.

These divisions allow a basic analysis to be undertaken in order to

provide an idea of proportions of themes. However, they are not unproblematic, particularly those categories found without context. Category 5 may depict ecclesiastical figures, since no weapons are found. Category 4 includes a large number of stones featuring single horsemen carrying a spear which cannot be included in Categories 1 or 2, since there are no animals or hierarchical groups present, but it is not unreasonable to suppose that the spear could be associated with hunting or conflict. It is issues such as these that highlight the need to study these stones using a more sophisticated approach.

Traditionally, various aspects of the stones have been studied in isolation. Symbol function and meaning, material culture and cross

Kate Anderson 190

styles are topics of previous works (Clark, forthcoming; Henderson and Henderson 2004; Jackson 1993) but rarely is a stone considered in its entirety. The components of its carving are not individual but form part of a coherent whole, if only we could grasp it. Therefore, the approach of dividing the stones into categories can only be a blunt tool, the start of a longer and more complicated process. In order to understand how the three themes of hunting, warfare and religion are connected, it is necessary to identify how many stones have references to multiple themes, or trans-themes. By their very nature, Class II and III stones depict Christian imagery in the form of a cross and so where hunting or warfare is depicted it is also automatically associated with religion. However, several stones seem to display images of all three themes. The manner in which these trans-themes are presented and their relative positioning may provide some insight into the extent to which these elitist preoccupations overlapped and whether any particular pattern can be deduced in relation to the dominance or pre-eminence given to one over the others.

The number of trans-themed stones, depicting all three themes, will vary depending on the way categories have been classified. The classification of the hunting and warfare categories in this paper allows identification of seven at least partially trans-themed monuments. Three of the hunting scenes (found on the Tullibole, Meigle 11 and Mugdrum stones) bear relation to the warfare category as the positioning and size of the hunters suggest a hierarchy – a key feature of the warfare scenes. Three of the warfare scenes (on the Barochan, Dull and Dupplin stones) contain a dog, while a fourth (the Menmuir 1 stone) shows what appears to be a beast, possibly a deer. Dogs and beasts are key components of hunting scenes, although in the case of the first three, these may not be true trans-themes as it is possible that dogs were employed as weapons during fighting.

It would be possible to raise significantly the number of monuments counting as trans-themed were the classifications to be relaxed slightly, as the demarcation between the two categories is frequently artificial. Spears are a key feature of both categories and are often carried in the same position in hunting and war scenes. Some hunting scenes show hunters carrying more of the warrior’s panoply than just a spear, as, for example, on the Inchbrayock 1 stone, and likewise, five war scenes show warriors carrying only a spear, including those on two of the most famous “warrior” stones – Dupplin and Aberlemno 2. It is not unreasonable to assume that


191

hunting provided vital practice in the use of weapons that could also be employed in conflict. Further, the category of “Armed Horseman” could be taken a step further; most of the weapons in this category are spears and the presence of a multi-purpose weapon without any other form of context may be deliberately ambiguous. It may be intentionally meant to evoke the pursuits of hunting and warfare at the same time, proclaiming that the figure depicted was a generally skilled, talented and elite individual – division between hunting and warfare in this context would be pointless. Although there are monuments that are clearly dominated by their reference to warfare, such as Sueno’s stone, or to hunting, such as the Hilton of Cadboll stone, it is also clear that drawing an automatic distinction between the two categories will not always be appropriate.

The relative positioning of different features within each stone is crucial to understanding the relationships between particular themes. In all but two cases, the religious imagery was dominant (where it covers more than 80% of at least one side of the monument), reflecting the monuments’ essentially religious nature. Where a cross has been carved, this is referred to as the front of the stone, and frequently the secular scenes are to be found on the reverse face. A secular figure will be described as dominant if it is the only image, if it is larger than the other images, or if it forms a scene which covers a large portion of one side of the stone. Where the figure is smaller than other images, or is one figure surrounded by multiple other images of at least the same size, it is not considered to be dominant.

Fig. 3. The location of anthropomorphic figures and their dominance.

0

20

40

60

80

100

%

Hunting War Complex Armed Men Unarmed

Men

Secular on Reverse Secular Dominant

Kate Anderson 192

Fig. 4. The positioning of anthropomorphic figures on stones.

The majority of stones, around 80%, separate the secular and religious aspects of carving onto different sides of the stones, suggesting that while the themes are directly linked they also represent separate spheres of conception. This holds true quite evenly across the five different categories, as does the level of dominance of anthropomorphic figures at around 50%. The secular scenes are clearly of some importance but not to the exclusion of other features, such as abstract symbols and decorative knotwork. It is worth noting that where the human element is not the main image, it is frequently pairs of symbols, such as the double disk and Z-rod, which dominate. Doubtless this has some significance, but much has already been speculated as to the meaning of the symbols (Clarke forthcoming; Jackson 1993) and there is nothing further that may be helpfully added here. The one exception to the general positioning of secular figures are those found in war scenes, where dominance rises to 100% (see Fig. 3). The majority of the secular features tend to be placed at the top, with the remainder split between those positioned in the centre and those at the bottom, although the latter is more common (see Fig. 4). DISCUSSION It could be argued that where a stone shows religious imagery on one side and secular scenes on the other, the two were carved at different times, indicating that the images had no direct and specific

0

20

40

60

80

100

%

Hunting War Complex Armed Men Men

Top Centre Bottom


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association with each other. Had the abstract symbols held some crucial religious significance, it is not unfeasible to suggest that the subsequent imposition of a Christian cross, appropriating “pagan” space, would have been a key element in consolidating the conversion of the people of Early Historic Scotland. However, their very shape makes this unlikely. Two, at Barochan and Dupplin, are entirely carved into the shape of a cross with secular scenes depicted within panels. The vast majority of the others, like Aberlemno 2, seem shaped specifically to fit the cross they contain or at least to be dressed and shaped into a roughly symmetrical form in a way that Class I stones are not, indicating that the cross was the first feature carved – or was at least the dominant feature in mind when the stone was being prepared. If the two sides were contemporary and the cross was primary, the inclusion of pre-Christian symbols might indicate a desire by the Christian instigators of the monuments to include symbols with a long history of meaning to the peoples of Scotland. It may also indicate a level of practical accommodation between the pagan and Christian traditions, a theory supported by descriptions of the approach of Church leaders to warfare provided by literary sources (Bede, HE). If we accept that the two sides were created contemporaneously, it raises questions as to why particular themes were paired together and whether any patterning appears.

The combination of significant proportions of the stones displaying dominant anthropomorphic themes and the placement of these themes at the top of the stones, suggests that, in general, these may have more importance for those who made and experienced the stones than the other non-religious elements shown.

Whether the Christian nature of the monuments is a representation of deeply held beliefs, or a product of convention or political necessity, is unclear. However, it does strongly imply the dominance and involvement of religion in other aspects of elite society, at least symbolically, and inferences may be drawn regarding the central practical and political role of the church in everyday life. The dominant placing of all war scenes suggests a significant cultural importance attached to warfare, albeit on a minority of stones. There are numerous examples of cultures across the world conferring preferred status on those considered to be the most successful of warriors. If, as the nature and positioning of the war scenes suggest, elite societies in Scotland also celebrated military achievement in this way it seems likely that these images represent a shared sense of

Kate Anderson 194

identity and self-worth. Alternatively, it is possible that all the monuments were created with differing intentions and functions in mind. Perhaps those showing dominant scenes of warfare were intended to commemorate an event or particular aspect of an individual’s life, as opposed to making a general statement of belief, status or loyalty, although such possibilities can only remain conjecture at this point.

The representation of warriors is also somewhat revealing about the arrangement of Early Historic Scottish societies and the way in which conflicts were conducted. Firstly, the monuments illustrate a clear demarcation between the elite figures, with all the trappings of wealth and privilege – a war horse and full panoply of weapons – and the vast majority of those who might also be involved in a conflict, poorer and less well-equipped foot soldiers. Horses and cavalry did not seem to form a significant part of armies or war parties, which is perhaps to be expected in societies where the hierarchical arrangements are so steeply pyramidal. Efficient utilisation of a well-trained war horse would have involved expenses and training out of the reach of all but the wealthiest (Hughson 1991). Instead, those who could afford more than the absolute minimum of one weapon, tended to carry either a shield and sword or shield and spear. Effective use of shields, and particularly swords, requires at least some degree of experience, suggesting that military practice was sufficiently important for significant sections of the male population to undergo some level of training. Finally, although general conclusions can be tentatively drawn here, it is important to note that attitudes to, and methods of conducting, conflict might have varied significantly across Scotland during this period.

The finding that Christianity was an important and all-pervasive aspect of Early Historic Scottish society, and that warfare was a crucial activity in the life of the male elites, is borne out by literary sources of the time, which also explicitly link the two. The 5th-9th centuries AD were a time of massive upheaval, with major power struggles taking place across the territory of modern Scotland, in both the religious and secular arenas. However, the literary sources of the time (Anderson and Anderson 1991; Bede, HE; Koch 1997) make it clear that the religious and secular during this period were interdependent.

The relationship between Christian Church leaders and kings is described explicitly by early writers and is extremely interesting.


195

Warfare and raiding were an integral part of society across Britain at this time and the financial incentives were crucial in maintaining a king’s power base and keeping the economy of his kingdom healthy (Aitchison 2003: 136). Church leaders needed to find a way to allow individuals to convert but continue to take part in this activity; the compromise they developed was the “Just War” (Alcock 2003: 80). This stipulated that a Bishop could provide his king with a dispensation to go to war, with no spiritual repercussions, if the war was defensive or would free a kingdom from heathen raids, would lead to the conversion of a kingdom or if the enemy were Christian but celebrated Easter on the wrong date. Interestingly, the importance of the concept of a Just War and schisms within the early church demonstrably had more influence on early writers than the “moral” divisions between pagans and Christians. In his Ecclesiastical History, Bede rather gloatingly recounts how during the 7th century a heathen king, Aethelfrith, slaughtered twelve hundred monks praying for victory for the other side – the massacre of Christians by a heathen was acceptable because the monks in question celebrated Easter on the wrong date (Bede, HE: 140). Such a system conferred great power on the Bishops, given that kings were dependent on their Bishop’s goodwill to maintain their own status. It was also financially beneficial to the Bishops, as grateful kings gave them a proportion of the proceeds of authorised raids and wars. Specific examples of such generosity are to be found south of the border: Reculver Fort in Kent and Burgh Castle in Norfolk were both given to the early Church by kings in return for prayers for victory (Alcock 1987: 94). Over a short span of time, Church leaders began to accrue large amounts of influence, power and money.

The accumulation of political and spiritual power was also occurring in the ostensibly secular arena, as kings and war leaders began to attract reverence bordering on the religious. Military success was paramount in society at this time and this is reflected in art, poetry and law. The hierarchical arrangement of the various strata of society shown on the Dupplin cross has been interpreted as a reflection of the almost divine status of kings (Alcock 2003: 392); the Y Goddodin “immortalises” its warriors in song and emphasizes the virtues of heroic warriors (Koch 1997); Dal Riatan law stated that a new king was required to consolidate his position by leading a successful cattle raid to provide a feast for his coronation (Alcock 2003: 119). In all these instances, kingly leadership and military

Kate Anderson 196

success are explicitly linked and both are revered to a very high degree.

CONCLUSIONS Although secular scenes are only found on a relatively small proportion of monuments, this small group is particularly illuminating when looked at in detail. These stones, although essentially religious monuments, make some reference to the secular experience in Early Historic Scotland, and many indicate a preoccupation with hunting or warfare. In addition, several may indicate both at the same time. Examination of the frequency of combinations and arrangement of the images on the monuments reveals religion to be a dominant preoccupation of Early Historic Scotland, as was warfare, although warfare and hunting are themselves not necessarily separate activities. The overlap between the two, both in terms of the skills and weapons involved, and the possibility that both were an integral aspect of the lives and self-perceptions of the elites of this period make strict division of these activities unrealistic. Christian imagery is always represented, and the strong economic and cultural ties to be found between religion and other aspects of elite lifestyle is borne out through other sources.

The approach employed here of examining frequency and positioning of particular categories provides a starting point for examination of the anthropomorphic, secular aspects of the stones. However, it also has definite limitations and remains a rather blunt tool with which to consider the themes depicted on the stones. An alternative approach which does not rely on initial, clumsy attempts to separate the stones into categories, could incorporate a more sophisticated method of analysing relative positioning and draw on existing bodies of knowledge regarding abstract symbols, theology and art history, which might result in a far more nuanced picture of the lifestyle of the elites of Early Historic Scotland.

University of Edinburgh [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


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Acknowledgements A version of this paper was given at the “Symbols on Stones and Stones as Symbols” conference, held at Edinburgh University on 15-17 June 2006, and this work strongly reflects the discussions following its presentation. I would like to thank Professor Dennis Harding and Dr Fraser Hunter for their kind assistance. Notes 1 The named stones in this article are illustrated and described in the

following pages of volume 2 of Allen and Anderson (1993): Aberlemno

2 (209-13), Barochan (454-6), Dull (315), Dunkeld 2 (317-19), Dupplin

(319-21), Forres (150), Hilton of Cadboll (61-3), Meigle 11 (331-3),

Menmuir 1 (263-4), Minningaff (477), Mugdrum (367), Tullibole (375-

6).

2 The incomplete fragments category includes those fragments that show a

proportion of categories 4 and 5, but are obviously part of a larger stone,

portions of which are missing, making it impossible to determine

accurately what the original depicted. The lack of context in these cases

makes interpretation particularly hard as these partial images could be

incorporated in their present state into categories 4 and 5, with ten falling

into category 4 and six into category 5. There is also a possibility that the

missing segments held images that would place the fragments in one of

the first three categories. This ambiguity led the fragment stones to be

excluded from the analysis.

References Aitchison, N. (2003). The Picts and the Scots at War. Stroud: Sutton

Publishing Ltd.

Alcock, L. (1987). Economy, Society and Warfare Among the Britons and

Saxons. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.

---- (2003). Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain

AD 550-850. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph

Series.

Allen, J. R. and J. Anderson (1993 [1903]). The Early Christian Monuments

of Scotland. 2 vols. Balgavies: Pinkfoot Press.

Kate Anderson 198

Anderson, A. O. and M. O. Anderson (1991). Adomnan’s Life of Columba.

Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Bailey, R. N. (1996). Ambiguous Birds and Beasts: three sculptural puzzles

in South-West Scotland. Whithorn: Friends of the Whithorn Trust.

Bede, trans. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (1991). Historia Eccles-

iastica Gentis Anglorum. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Buist, G. (1851). On the Ancient Sculptured Monument Discovered at St

Andrews, in 1833. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland

1, 234-7.

Clarke, D. (forthcoming, 2007). Reading the Multiple Lives of Pictish

Stones. Medieval Archaeology 51.

Close-Brooks, J. (1980). Excavations [of a Pictish burial and medieval kiln]

in the Dairy Park, Dunrobin, Sutherland, 1977. Proceedings of the

Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 110, 328-45.

Henderson, G. and I. Henderson (2004). The Art of the Picts: Sculpture and

Metalwork in Early Medieval Scotland. London: Thames and Hudson.

Hughson, I. (1991). Pictish Horse Carvings. Glasgow Archaeological

Journal 17, 53-62.

Jackson, A. (1993). Pictish Symbols Stones? Edinburgh: The Association for

Scottish Ethnography Monograph No. 3, University of Edinburgh.

Koch, J. T. (1997). The Gododdin of Aneirin: Text and Context from Dark-

Age North Britain. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.

Laing, D. (1851). A Note Respecting the Sculptured Cross at St Vigeans,

Near Abroath; Of Which Casts by Mr Henry Laing, Seal Engraver, Were

Exhibited. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 1, 294-

6.

Shepherd, I. A. G. and A. N. Shepherd (1977). An Incised Pictish Figure and

a New Symbol Stone from Barflat, Rhynie, Gordon District. Proceedings

of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 109, 211-22.

Southwick, L. (1981). The So-Called Sueno’s Stone at Forres. Elgin: Moray

District Libraries.

Stuart, J. (1854). Notice of Sculptured Stones and Other Antiquities Found

on Castle Hill of Kintore, and of Other Ancient Remains Found in the

Neighbourhood. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 2,

230-3.

Cosmos 21 (2005)

Reviews Alexandra Sanmark. Power and Conversion: A Comparative Study of

Christianization in Scandinavia. Occasional Papers in Archaeology 34.

Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala

University. 2004. ISBN 91-506-1739-7. 317 pp.

The author asks five questions at the beginning of her thesis (p. 27). The first

concerns an interesting issue: “What are the requirements for successful

conversion?”. Sanmark refuses the old categories of conversions –

traditionally mission by words, mission by acts and mission by sword – and

argues that conversion was a more complex process than is generally

supposed. She brings new ideas to the methods of conversion by a

comparative approach, looking at the Franciscans’ mission among the

Aztecs and these missionaries’ methods of transforming rites and images in

the Catholic churches. The role of the Franciscans could be compared with

that, found in medieval hagiographies, of the monks who made a great

impression on rich and poor on their travels in the North. Still the role of the

papacy dominates the conversion process together with the political process

in Medieval Europe.

The answers to the second question “What strategies were pursued by

secular rulers and clerics?” and to the fourth “Both forceful and more

peaceful methods were used in conversion. What were the differences in the

methods and their effects?” concern the reception of Christianity. Sanmark

claims that the conversion process was characterised in Scandinavia by a

long catechumenate, a period when people could take part in Christian life

before baptism (pp. 92-3). This period of education is reflected in the

inscriptions on rune stones, where sentences occur such as “Christ let

Tummes soul come into light and paradise and in the best world for

Christians” (p. 94). Sanmark stresses the role of women in the conversion

process in connection with the phrase “Mother of God”, alluding at the

Virgin Mary, that is frequently found on rune stones (p. 100), but I do not

think that belief in an immaculate virgin was included, since only one rune

stone mentions Maria “mey” (maiden).

This discussion leads to her third question “How did conversion affect

the life of the wider population?”. This is described in Part III of the thesis,

where Sanmark gives a broad introduction to the regulations of everyday

life, seasonal fasting regulations and calendar rites. This is, in my opinion,

Reviews

Cosmos 21 (2005)

200

the best part of the dissertation, a useful and interesting account of the

medieval passage rites and church ceremonies.

When turning to her last question “What elements of pre-Christian

religious custom and Christianity led to continuity or change after

conversion?” the problems begin. Sanmark tries to identify pre-Christian

religions as “animistic ideas and magic”, a formulation taken from Helge

Ljungberg’s work from the 1930s and 1940s, reflecting an obsolete theory

with its roots in Tylor’s Primitive Culture from 1870. Neither “animism” nor

“magic” are today regarded as degenerated religious perceptions. We have

abandoned these older and problematic terms, which were used to

distinguish high religion from primitive superstition, or, as Catherine Bell

put it, “our ritual from theirs”. Sanmark admits at p. 149 that the difference

between religion and magic is subtle, but states that religion “is signified by

reverence” and magic by the control of supernatural powers, echoing another

obsolete theory of Sir James Frazer. “During the Middle Ages, the

distinction between religion and magic was not always made clear,”

Sanmark declares. I would say that there are no clear distinctions.

It goes without saying that this perspective leads to more trouble.

Sanmark argues that pre-Christian cult was abandoned first of all by the

elite, who no longer hosted their sacrificial feasts (p. 177). When this link

between gods and aristocracy was broken, the common people turned back

to their original worship of stones and wooden pillars, Sanmark declares

without providing any evidence. Moreover, Sanmark lays herself open to

criticism when she argues that “the Romans took over the Greek mythology”

and lost their own. If she had turned to other modern Anglo-Saxon scholars,

experts on Roman religions, she would not have made that mistake. This is,

however, her clue to explain why the Old Norse Religion became an easy

target for Christian mission. It is another echo of an old and obsolete theory

about religious evolution from dull polytheism to glorious monotheism,

especially Christianity.

Still, some parts of Power and Conversion: A Comparative Study of

Christianization in Scandinavia, are both interesting and well worth reading.

Part III especially is an able piece of work. (Britt-Mari Näsström)

Reviews

Cosmos 21 (2005)

201

Anders Andrén, Kristina Jennbert and Catharina Raudvere, eds. Old Norse

Religion in Long-Term Perspectives: Origins, changes, and interactions. An

international conference in Lund, Sweden, June 3-7, 2004. Vägar till

Midgård 8. Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2006. ISBN 10: 91-89116-81-x;

ISBN 13: 978-91-89116-8. 416 pp.

This is quite a landmark volume with its large, attractive format packed with

over seventy papers from the Lund conference mentioned on its title page. It

is the culmination of a great deal of work over a number of years by

Scandinavian scholars who have aimed to make sense of their cultural

history by bringing together the findings of archaeologists and literary

scholars. They would all agree that many questions remain but much lively

debate is taking place on the basis of a series of exchanges, the results of

which appeared in earlier volumes in this series. With the Lund conference

they opened themselves up internationally and this is the first of the volumes

to appear in English. Rather surprisingly, in view of the high quality of the

material, the book lacks indexes, and this makes it rather difficult to return to

any particular point or article that caught one’s interest.

The papers are grouped under the headings: Worldview and Cosmology,

Ritual and Religious Practice, Ritual Sites and Images, Myth and Memory,

and Reception and Present-Day Use. There is often a note of caution (rather

well caught in the paper title “Escaping the allure of meaning”, 95) for the

authors often have to fight off preconceptions based on less rigorous

scholarship than that current today. The gods have been divided into the

“sky gods”, the Aesir, including Odin and Thor, and the “fertility gods”, the

Vanir, including Njord and Freyr, but Rudolf Simek protests that “it is . . .

more than high time to say goodbye to a family of gods called Vanir for the

heathen period” (380) and draws attention to a 2005 article of his entitled

“The Vanir – an obituary”. What is at issue is the careful reading of texts

within their period and cultural context and with an awareness of authorial

intention. In this process of exact reading, new and exciting interpretations

may open up. One of the most striking symbols in Old Norse mythology is

the world tree, which in modern accounts is often called Yggdrasill, a name

that has generally been understood to mean “the horse of Odin”. Henning

Kure notes, however, that the usual expression is Ygdrasils askr (the ash of

Yggdrasill), and that a good case can be made for Yggdrasill (= “the

terrifying walker”) as a name for Odin himself, so that the tree is “the ash of

Odin” (70). Re-interpretation has been applied to physical objects as well as

words, and one thesis that won immediate assent and caused quite a ripple of

excitement at the Lund conference concerned the tiny gold foil figures called

guldgubber. The images on them had sometimes been interpreted as gods

Reviews

Cosmos 21 (2005)

202

but, now that they have been carefully grouped and seen in comparison with

manuscript illustration, it can be plausibly suggested that many of them

relate to pre-Christian law rituals, such as marriage contracts, and show

human beings using symbolic gestures (Ratke and Simek, 259-64). The book

includes a number of detailed studies of particular excavations and surveys

of archaeological discoveries. It also contains some interesting observations

on myth in comparative perspective (e.g. Hultgård, Iranian, Phrygian and

Greek, 58-62, Bek-Pedersen, Celtic, 331-5) and even an account of iron

smelting in Africa and Nepal, where procedures are still carried out with an

awareness of “metaphoric associations between furnace and women,

smelting and sex” (Haaland, 82). This is a highly stimulating collection of

papers which well repays close study. I will finish by mentioning the paper

on “Rituals, witnesses, and sagas” (74-8) in which Thomas A. DuBois

addresses the problem of interpreting accounts of pagan practices that come

to us through Christian sources, and includes, in a section on “Hákon’s blot”,

a clear set of distinctions that can be drawn between pagan sacrifice and

Christian practice. (Emily Lyle)

Books Received

Chapple, Christopher Key, ed. Jainism and Ecology. Nonviolence in the Web

of Life. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-945454-

33-3; 0-945454-34-1 (pbk). xxx, 252 pp.

Jing, Anning. The Water God’s Temple of the Guangsheng Monastery.

Cosmic Function of Art, Ritual, and Theater. Leiden, Boston and Köln: Brill,

2002. ISSN 0169-9563; ISBN 90-04-11956-6. x, 294 pp., illustrations.

Lehman, Winfred P. Pre-Indo-European. Journal of Indo-European Studies

Monograph No. 41. Washington D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man, 2002.

ISBN 0-941694-82-8. xvi, 287 pp.

Moore, Henrietta L. and Todd Sanders, eds. Magical Interpretations,

Magical Realities. Modernity, Witchcraft and the Occult in Postcolonial

Africa. London and New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-25866-9; 0-

415-25867-7 (pbk). xii, 253 pp.

Morford, Mark. The Roman Philosophers. From the Time of Cato the

Censor to the Death of Marcus Aurelius. London and New York: Routledge,

2002. ISBN 0-415-18851-2; 0-415-18852-2 (pbk). xii, 292 pp.

Reviews

Cosmos 21 (2005)

203

Olmsted, Garrett, S. A Definitive Reconstructed Text of the Coligny

Calendar. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph No. 39.

Washington D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man, 2001. ISBN 0-941094-78-

X. 49 pp.; 69 plates.

Petrosyan, Armen, Y. The Indo-European and Ancient Near-Eastern

Sources of the Armenian Epic. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph

No. 42. Washington D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man, 2002. ISBN 0-

941694-79-81-X. 236 pp.

Schilbrack, Kevin, ed. Thinking Through Myths. Philosophical Perspectives.

London and New York: Routledge, 2002. ISBN 0-415-25460-4; 0-415-

25461-2 (pbk). x, 217 pp.

Schrempp, Gregory and William Hansen, eds. Myth. A New Symposium.

Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-253-

34158-2; 0-253-21555-2 (pbk). vii, 262 pp.

TITLE INDEX, Volumes 11-20

Anthropology and the Heritage of Georges Dumézil (John

Leavitt)

14.3-6

Anthropology’s Moral Cosmos: Reinventing Heisenberg’s

Wheel (C. Scott Littleton)

15.111-27

Archaeology and the Moral Cosmos (Chris Lynn) 15.129-46

Architectural Idolatry: Royal Control of Space, Time and

Sacrality (Dean A. Miller)

12.241-57

Articulation of Time, The: Some Indo-European

Comparisons (N. J. Allen)

17.163-78

Athena’s Peplos: Weaving as a Core Female Activity in

Ancient and Modern Greece (Evy Johanne Håland)

20.155-82

Beginning Time: A New Look at the Early Jewish/Christian

Ritual Time (Neil Douglas-Klotz)

18.143-58

Binary “Spine” of Dumézil’s Tripartite Indo-European

Ideology, The (C. Scott Littleton)

14.69-83

Body, Cosmos, State in Ancient Greece (G. E. R. Lloyd) 12.21-52

Body of the God, The: Trees and Wood in Religious

Symbolism and Ritual in Ancient Mexico (Doris

Heyden)

13.111-17

Book of Kells, The: Demarcating the Sacred Environment

(Heather Pulliam)

12.203-22

British Hill-Figures: A Celtic Interpretation (Miranda

Green)

11.125-38

Brother’s Son of Tawananna and Others, The: The Rule of

Dynastic Succession in the Old Hittite Kingdom

(Margalit Finkelberg)

13.127-41

Calendar Celebrations in Early Seventeenth-Century South-

East Scotland (Eila Williamson)

16.195-205

Celtic Otherworld, The (Kathryn Chadbourne) 14.157-77

Comparative Anthropology of Wisdom: Buddhism –

Paganism – Christianity (Daniel Dubuisson)

15.63-75

Indexes to Volumes 11-20

206

Comparison and Chinese Mythology: Review Article (T. H.

Barrett)

11.69-77

Cosmic Scripts and Heavenly Scriptures: The Holy Nature

of Taoist Texts (Stephan Peter Bumbacher)

11.139-53

Cosmological Ideas in Latvian Rock Carvings and Distaff

Designs (Sandis Laime)

19.2-20

Cosmologies and Customised Paradigms in the Architecture

of Southeast Asia (Pinna Indorf)

12.163-92

Cúchulainn in the Light of the Mahābhārata and the

Odyssey (N. J. Allen)

14.51-6

Cumont’s Shadow: Spectacle and Symbolism in Roman

Funerary Art (Sinclair Bell)

19.213-49

Depictions of the Cosmos in South Asian Water

Architecture (Julia A. B. Hegewald)

12.115-30

Diary of Flora Baum: March 1, 2003 (Julia Budenz) 20.183

Dumézil and the Details (John Colarusso) 14.103-17

Early Medieval Irish and Indic Polities and the Concept of

Righteous Ruler, The (Maxim Fomin)

15.167-201

Earthen Long Barrows of Northern Europe, The: A Vision

of the Neolithic World (Magdalena S. Midgley)

11.117-23

Éisce, Gáeth ocus Muir: Three Notes on Archaic Celtic

Cosmology (Sharon Paice MacLeod)

18.103-19

Endings and Openings: Symmetry and Asymmetry in the

Slavonic Calendar (Irina Sedakova)

18.207-22

Envisioning a Model for Ontological Choice and a Moral

Cosmos (Stephen Kaplan)

15.3-21

First Thunder as a Hierophanic Experience in Lithuania, The

(Nijolė Laurinkienė)

19.43-61

From Cannibals to Kant: Our Moral Cosmos (Andrew

Oldenquist)

15.45-61

From “Dual Aspects of Sovereignty” and the “Spine of the

System” to Alternate Succession and a Line of Queens

(Emily Lyle)

14.85-91

Title Index

207

Fulfilling Expectations and Meeting Obligations in the

Ritual Year (Aude Le Borgne)

15.91-110

Gambolling Calf in Bronze Age Crete, The (Eleanor

Loughlin)

16.89-101

Han’gǔl Alphabet of Korea, The (James H. Grayson) 11.55-68

Historical Sources for the Study of Latvian Mythology

(Aldis Putelis)

19.63-92

Hof, Halls, Gođar and Dwarves: An Examination of the

Ritual Space in the Pagan Icelandic Hall (Terry Gunnell)

17.3-36

Holy Cows: Natural Precursors to the Ritual Year? (David

Trevarthen)

18.35-41

“House Members of the Faith”: Domestic Architecture and

Early Christian Identity (Philip F. Esler)

12.223-39

Iconography of Tie-dye Textiles in the Ancient Americas,

The (Kelley A. Hays-Gilpin, Laurie D. Webster, Polly

Schaafsma)

20.33-56

Imbolc: A New Interpretation (Phillip A. Bernhardt-House) 18.57-76

Imbolc, Candlemas and The Feast of St Brigit (Thomas

Torma)

18.77-85

In the Presence of the Teacher: Incarnate Lamas in Tibetan

Buddhism (Martin A. Mills)

14.179-209

Inca Denary System in Comparative Perspective, The

(Emily Lyle)

13.119-26

Indian Christian Architecture: A Living Cosmology

(Caroline Mackenzie)

12.193-202

Insights for Contemporary Artists from the Traditions of

Russian Icon Writers and Tibetan Thangka Painters

(Deborah J. Haynes)

11.155-72

Interpreting Yule and Other Transitions in the Year (Emily

Lyle)

16.151-8

Into the Beads: Dreams as Source of Knowledge for Craft

Production. An Ethnographic Account from the Sioux

Country (Hélène Wallaert)

20.17-32

King and Warrior-Hero in Ritual Time (Dean A. Miller) 18.59-71


208

Lupine Apocalypse: The Wolf in Pagan and Christian

Cosmology in Medieval Britain and Scandinavia (Aleks

G. Pluskowski)

17.113-31

Maggio Drammatico in Frassinoro: Its Meaning and

Function, The (Licia Masoni)

18.223-54

Magic Circle of Time, The (Nikita I. Tolstoy) 18.193-206

Magic Cow in India and Ireland, The (John Leavitt) 14.21-49

Makkin Siccar: Dr James Hutton on the Rocky Road to

Evolution (Ian Morrison)

13.69-89

Marking Liturgical Time: The Ritual Year in the

Illustrations of the Book of Hours (Rosemary Wright)

18.173-91

Mathematics and Traditional Cosmology: Notes on Four

Encounters (Gregory Schrempp)

14.211-26

Mesoamerican Cosmological Model on the Clothing of the

Smiling Figurines of the Gulf Coast of Mexico, A

(Chantal Huckert)

20.57-96

Miniature Textiles in Andean Cosmology and Ritual (Karon

Winzenz)

20.97-120

Moral Cosmos: A Struggle Between True and False Myths

(W. Dupré)

15.23-44

Moral Cosmos of Village and Farm, The: A Case of 17th-

century Witchcraft (Alison Chapman)

15.147-65

Mysteries of Duality (Dean A. Miller) 14.57-67

Myth and Ritual Theory, The (Robert A. Segal) 17.141-62

Mythic Journey: A New Look at an Old Celtic Pot (Paula

Powers Coe)

13.49-68

Neo-Pagan Ritual Year, The (Jenny Butler) 18.121-42

Oceans, Islands and Sacred Mountains: Representations of

Cosmic Geography in Jaina Art and Architecture (Julia

A. B. Hegewald)

16.3-42

Oícheantha gan áireamh: The “Nights without Counting” of

the Irish Calendar, or the “Conception” of Time (Sylvie

Muller)

16.159-82

Title Index

209

On the One Hand and on the Other: Debate and Reciprocity

in Cosmology (Emily Lyle)

15.77-90

On the Non-Polarity of Gender in Ancient Indian

Cosmology (Adéla Sandness)

19.251-62

Opposites and Mediators in Old Norse Mythology (Karen

M. Bek-Pedersen)

17.37-58

Origin of the Alphabet, The (J. C. L. Gibson) 11.23-31

Oðinn and His Heroes: A Social Analysis (Stephan Grundy) 17.83-97

Ού κατα κόσμον: Acting “Inappropriately” in Apollonius

Rhodius’ Argonautica (Mirjam Plantiga)

15.243-71

Patterns of Visual Storytelling: Episodes from the Story of

Rāma on the Hoysaëa Amçtēśvara Temple (Kirsti Evans)

11.3-21

Poseidon, Athena, and the Cosmology of the Athenian Polis

(Jamie Morton)

13.143-73

Possible Celtic Iconography of Trance Possession, A (Geo

Athena Trevarthen)

19.137-53

Prussian Romuva Decoded (Vykintas Vaitkevičius) 19.93-127

Remembering Georges Dumézil (C. Scott Littleton) 14.7-8

Representations of Social Space in South Caucasian and

Indo-European Ideology (Kevin J. Tuite)

14.9-20

Return to the Cosmic Eternal: The Representation of a

Soul’s Journey to Paradise in a Chinese Funerary

Painting c. 168 BC (Anne Birrell)

13.3-20

Rewriting the Moral Cosmos in the 13th-century Queste del

Saint Graal (Dolores Warwick Frese)

15.203-21

Rites for Provoking and Stopping Rain in Slavonic Folk

Tradition (Svetlana M. Tolstaya)

17.179-95

Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient

Greece: A Comparative Approach (Evy Johanne Håland)

17.197-251

Rose and Blood, The: Images of Fire in Baltic Mythology

(Daiva Vaitkevičienė)

19.21-42

Rush Mat of the Wa-Xo’-Be, The: Wrapping the Osage

within the Cosmos (Alice Beck Kehoe)

20.2-16


210

Sacrifice at Samain: The Figure of Cromm Cruaich (Marcos

A. Balé)

18.87-101

Sacrifices at Uppsala, The: Christian Polemic or Ceremonies

of the Old Norse Religion? (Britt-Mari Näsström)

17.99-112

Season of the Dísir, The: The Winter Nights, and the

Dísablót in Early Medieval Scandinavian Belief (Terry

Gunnell)

16.117-49

Spinning Mary, The: Towards the Iconology of the

Annunciation (Florentina Badalanova Geller)

20.211-60

Spring Prayer Feasts in the Udmurt Village of Varklet-

Bodya in Tatarstan, The (Aado Lintrop)

18.43-55

Struggle and Justice in a Hippocratic Dream Image (Nurit

Karshon)

15.223-41

Symbolism of Spinning in Classical Art and Society, The

(Daniela Cottica)

20.185-209

Tapestry of Philomel, The (Gail McCail) 20.153

Thunder’s Pipe: The Blackfoot Ritual Year (Alice Beck

Kehoe)

18.19-33

Transcendent Forms: A Comment on Dean Miller’s

“Architectural Idolatry” (John Haldane)

12.259-64

Treatment of the Human Head in the Mortuary Cult of

Ancient Egypt, The (Patricia I. Lambert-Zazulak)

12.3-20

Tree at the Centre and the Indo-European and Hebraic

Image of Mind Growing as Plant, The (Maryanne Cline

Horowitz)

14.93-101

Turning Point of the Year, The: Midsummer Satire in

England (Sandra Billington)

16.183-94

Twin Rulers as a Religious and Political Institution during

the Bronze Age, The (Kristian Kristiansen)

19.181-211

Ugaritic Past and Present: Aspects of a Cuneiform Alphabet

(J. B. Lloyd and N. Wyatt)

11.33-54

Universal Elements in Musical Cosmology (A. Peter

Westbrook)

13.21-47

Title Index

211

Visual and Verbal Art: Weaving and Poetry in Classical

Greek and Old Norse Narratives (Lena E. Norrman)

20.121-51

Viśvarūpa, The Form of the Universe (T. S. Maxwell) 12.131-61

Warlocks, Valkyries and Varlets: A Prolegomenon to the

Study of North Sea Witchcraft Terminology (Stephen A.

Mitchell)

17.59-81

Welsh Calennig and Greek Kalanda: Begging in the New

Year (Maria Teresa Agozzino)

19.155-79

Where Daedalus Meets Yu Ch’ui: A Workshop on Chinese

Myth Studies (Anne Birrell)

12.53-63

Year in the Kumaon Himalayas, The (John Leavitt) 16.43-88

Year’s Ritual Cycle in Japan, A: The work of Humans and

Divine Spirits (Peter Knecht)

18.3-17

Yin/Yang Complementarity in Islamic Texts (Sachiko

Murata)

12.65-81

AUTHOR INDEX, Volumes 11-20

Allen, N. J.

Cúchulainn in the Light of the Mahābhārata and the

Odyssey

14.51-6

Articulation of Time, The: Some Indo-European

Comparisons

17.163-78

Agozzino, Maria Teresa

Welsh Calennig and Greek Kalanda: Begging in the

New Year

19.155-79

Balé, Marcos A.

Sacrifice at Samain: The Figure of Cromm Cruaich

18.87-101

Barrett, T. H.

Comparison and Chinese Mythology: Review Article

11.69-77

Bek-Pedersen, Karen M.

Opposites and Mediators in Old Norse Mythology

17.37-58

Bell, Sinclair

Cumont’s Shadow: Spectacle and Symbolism in Roman

Funerary Art

19.213-49

Bernhardt-House, Phillip A.

Imbolc: A New Interpretation

18.57-76

Billington, Sandra

Turning Point of the Year, The : Midsummer Satire in

England

16.183-94

Birrell, Anne

Where Daedalus Meets Yu Ch’ui: A Workshop on

Chinese Myth Studies

12.53-63

Return to the Cosmic Eternal: The Representation of a

Soul’s Journey to Paradise in a Chinese Funerary

Painting c. 168 BC

13.3-20


214

Budenz, Julia

Diary of Flora Baum: March 1, 2003

20.183

Bumbacher, Stephen Peter

Cosmic Scripts and Heavenly Scriptures: The Holy

Nature of Taoist Texts

11.139-53

Butler, Jenny

Neo-Pagan Ritual Year, The

18.121-42

Chadbourne, Kathryn

Celtic Otherworld, The

14.157-77

Chapman, Alison

Moral Cosmos of Village and Farm, The: A Case of

17th-century Witchcraft

15.147-65

Coe, Paula Powers

Mythic Journey: A New Look at an Old Celtic Pot

13.49-68

Colarusso, John

Dumézil and the Details

14.103-17

Cottica, Daniela

Symbolism of Spinning in Classical Art and Society, The

20.185-209

Douglas-Klotz, Neil

Beginning Time: A New Look at the Early

Jewish/Christian Ritual Time

18.143-58

Dubuisson, Daniel

Comparative Anthropology of Wisdom: Buddhism –

Paganism – Christianity

15.63-75

Dupré, W.

Moral Cosmos: A Struggle Between True and False

Myths

15.23-44

Esler, Philip F.

“House Members of the Faith”: Domestic Architecture

and Early Christian Identity

12.223-39

Author Index

215

Evans, Kirsti

Patterns of Visual Storytelling: Episodes from the Story

of Rāma on the Hoysaëa Amçtēśvara Temple

11.3-21

Finkelberg, Margalit

Brother’s Son of Tawananna and Others, The: The Rule

of Dynastic Succession in the Old Hittite Kingdom

13.127-41

Fomin, Maxim

Early Medieval Irish and Indic Polities and the Concept

of Righteous Ruler, The

15.167-201

Frese, Dolores Warwick

Rewriting the Moral Cosmos in the 13th-century Queste

del Saint Graal

15.203-21

Geller, Florentina Badalanova

Spinning Mary, The: Towards the Iconography of the

Annunciation

20.211-60

Gibson, J. C. L.

Origin of the Alphabet, The

11.23-31

Grayson, James H.

Han’gǔl Alphabet of Korea, The

11.55-68

Green, Miranda

British Hill-Figures: A Celtic Interpretation

11.125-38

Grundy, Stephan

Oðinn and His Heroes: A Social Analysis

17.83-97

Gunnell, Terry

Season of the Dísir, The: The Winter Nights, and the

Dísablót in Early Medieval Scandinavian Belief

16.117-49

Hof, Halls, Goðar and Dwarves: An Examination of the

Ritual Space in the Pagan Icelandic Hall

17.3-36

Håland, Evy Johanne

Rituals of Magical Rain-Making in Modern and Ancient

Greece: A Comparative Approach

17.197-251


216

Athena’s Peplos: Weaving as a Core Female Activity in

Ancient and Modern Greece

20.155-82

Haldane, John

Transcendent Forms: A Comment on Dean Miller’s

“Architectural Idolatry”

12.259-64

Hays-Gilpin, Kelley A. (with Laurie D. Webster and Polly

Schaafsma)

Iconography of Tie-dye Textiles in the Ancient

Americas, The

20.33-56

Haynes, Deborah J.

Insights for Contemporary Artists from the Traditions of

Russian Icon Writers and Tibetan Thangka Painters

11.155-72

Hegewald, Julia A. B.

Depictions of the Cosmos in South Asian Water

Architecture

12.115-30

Oceans, Islands and Sacred Mountains: Representations

of Cosmic Geography in Jaina Art and Architecture

16.3-42

Heyden, Doris

Body of the God, The: Trees and Wood in Religious

Symbolism and Ritual in Ancient Mexico

13.111-17

Horowitz, Maryanne Cline

Tree at the Centre and the Indo-European and Hebraic

Image of Mind Growing as Plant, The

14.93-101

Huckert, Chantal

Mesoamerican Cosmological Model on the Clothing of

the Smiling Figurines of the Gulf Coast of Mexico, A

20.57-96

Indorf, Pinna

Cosmologies and Customised Paradigms in the

Architecture of Southeast Asia

12.163-92

Kaplan, Stephen

Envisioning a Model for Ontological Choice and a Moral

Cosmos

15.3-21

Author Index

217

Karshon, Nurit

Struggle and Justice in a Hippocratic Dream Image

15.223-41

Kehoe, Alice Beck

Thunder’s Pipe: The Blackfoot Ritual Year

18.19-33

Rush Mat of the Wa-Xo’-Be, The: Wrapping the Osage

within the Cosmos

20.2-16

Knecht, Peter

Year’s Ritual Cycle in Japan, A: The Work of Humans

and Divine Spirits

18.3-7

Kristiansen, Kristian

Twin Rulers as a Religious and Political Institution

during the Bronze Age, The

19.181-211

Laime, Sandis

Cosmological Ideas in Latvian Rock Carvings and

Distaff Designs

19.2-20

Lambert-Zazulak, Patricia I.

Treatment of the Human Head in the Mortuary Cult of

Ancient Egypt, The

12.3-20

Laurinkienė, Nijolė

First Thunder as a Hierophanic Experience in Lithuania,

The

19.43-61

Leavitt, John

Anthropology and the Heritage of Georges Dumézil

14.3-6

Magic Cow in India and Ireland, The 14.21-49

Year in the Kumaon Himalayas, The 16.43-88

Le Borgne, Aude

Fulfilling Expectations and Meeting Obligations in the

Ritual Year

15.91-110

Lintrop, Aado

Spring Prayer Feasts in the Udmurt Village of Varklet-

Bodya in Tatarstan, The

18.43-55


218

Littleton, C. Scott

Remembering Georges Dumézil

14.7-8

Binary “Spine” of Dumézil’s Tripartite Indo-European

Ideology, The

14.69-83

Anthropology’s Moral Cosmos: Reinventing

Heisenberg’s Wheel

15.111-27

Lloyd, J. B. (and N. Wyatt)

Ugaritic Past and Present: Aspects of a Cuneiform

Alphabet

11.33-54

Lloyd, G. E. R.

Body, Cosmos, State in Ancient Greece

12.21-52

Loughlin, Eleanor

Gambolling Calf in Bronze Age Crete, The

16.89-101

Lyle, Emily

Inca Denary System in Comparative Perspective, The

13.119-26

From “Dual Aspects of Sovereignty” and the “Spine of

the System” to Alternate Succession and a Line of

Queens

14.85-91

On the One Hand and on the Other: Debate and

Reciprocity in Cosmology

15.77-90

Interpreting Yule and Other Transitions in the Year 16.151-8

Lynn, Chris

Archaeology and the Moral Cosmos

15.129-46

Mackenzie, Caroline

Indian Christian Architecture: A Living Cosmology

12.193-202

MacLeod, Sharon Paice

Éisce, Gáeth ocus Muir: Three Notes on Archaic Celtic

Cosmology

18.103-19

Masoni, Licia

Maggio Drammatico in Frassinoro: Its Meaning and

Function, The

18.223-54

Author Index

219

Maxwell, T. S.

Viśvarūpa, The Form of the Universe

12.131-61

McCail, Gail

Tapestry of Philomel, The

20.153

Midgley, Magdalena S.

Earthen Long Barrows of Northern Europe, The: A

Vision of the Neolithic World

11.117-23

Miller, Dean A.

Architectural Idolatry: Royal Control of Space, Time and

Sacrality

12.241-57

Mysteries of Duality 14.57-67

King and Warrior-Hero in Ritual Time 18.59-71

Mills, Martin A.

In the Presence of the Teacher: Incarnate Lamas in

Tibetan Buddhism

14.179-209

Mitchell, Stephen A.

Warlocks, Valkyries and Varlets: A Prolegomenon to the

Study of North Sea Witchcraft Terminology

17.59-81

Morrison, Ian

Makkin Siccar: Dr James Hutton on the Rocky Road to

Evolution

13.69-89

Morton, Jamie

Poseidon, Athena, and the Cosmology of the Athenian

Polis

13.143-73

Muller, Sylvie

Oícheantha gan áireamh: The “Nights without

Counting” of the Irish Calendar, or the “Conception” of

Time

16.159-82

Murata, Sachiko

Yin/Yang Complementarity in Islamic Texts

12.65-81


220

Näsström, Britt-Mari

Sacrifices at Uppsala, The: Christian Polemic or

Ceremonies of the Old Norse Religion?

17.99-112

Norrman, Lena E.

Visual and Verbal Art: Weaving and Poetry in Classical

Greek and Old Norse Narratives

20.121-51

Oldenquist, Andrew

From Cannibals to Kant: Our Moral Cosmos

15.45-61

Plantinga, Mirjam

Ού κατα κόσμον: Acting “Inappropriately” in Apollonius

Rhodius’ Argonautica

15.243-71

Pluskowski, Aleks G.

Lupine Apocalypse: The Wolf in Pagan and Christian

Cosmology in Medieval Britain and Scandinavia

17.113-31

Pulliam, Heather

Book of Kells, The: Demarcating the Sacred

Environment

12.203-22

Putelis, Aldis

Historical Sources for the Study of Latvian Mythology

19.63-92

Sandness, Adéla

On the Non-Polarity of Gender in Ancient Indian

Cosmology

19.251-62

Schaafsma, Polly (with Kelley A. Hays-Gilpin and Laurie D.

Webster)


Americas, The

20.33-56

Schrempp, Gregory

Mathematics and Traditional Cosmology: Notes on Four

Encounters

14.211-26

Sedakova, Irina

Endings and Openings: Symmetry and Asymmetry in the

Slavonic Calendar

18.207-22

Author Index

221

Segal, Robert A.

Myth and Ritual Theory, The

17.141-62

Tolstaya, Svetlana M.

Rites for Provoking and Stopping Rain in Slavonic Folk

Tradition

17.179-95

Tolstoy, Nikita I.

Magic Circle of Time, The

18.193-206

Torma, Thomas

Imbolc, Candlemas and The Feast of St Brigit

18.77-85

Trevarthen, David

Holy Cows Natural Precursors to the Ritual Year?

18.35-41

Trevarthen, Geo Athena

Possible Celtic Iconography of Trance Possession, A

19.137-53

Tuite, Kevin J.

Representations of Social Space in South Caucasian and

Indo-European Ideology

14.9-20

Vaitkevičienė, Daiva

Rose and Blood, The: Images of Fire in Baltic

Mythology

19.21-42

Vaitkevičius, Vykintas

Prussian Romuva Decoded

19.93-127

Wallaert, Hélène

Into the Beads: Dreams as a Source of Knowledge for

Craft Production. An Ethnographic Account from the

Sioux Country

20.17-32

Webster, Laurie D. (with Kelley A. Hays-Gilpin and Polly

Schaafsma)


Americas, The

20.33-56

Westbrook, A. Peter

Universal Elements in Musical Cosmology

13.21-47


222

Williamson, Eila

Calendar Celebrations in Early Seventeenth-Century

South-East Scotland

16.195-205

Winzenz, Karon

Miniature Textiles in Andean Cosmology and Ritual

20.97-120

Wright, Rosemary

Marking Liturgical Time: The Ritual Year in the

Illustrations of the Book of Hours

18.173-91

Wyatt, N. (and J. B. Lloyd)

Ugaritic Past and Present: Aspects of a Cuneiform

Alphabet

11.33-54

NAME AND SUBJECT INDEX, Volumes 11-20

Abbo of Fleury: Passio Sancti

Eadmund 17.125

Abercrombie, Thomas 20.104,

110, 113

Abhidhammatta Sangaha 12.168

Abraham 18.143, 150, 151, 152,

153

Acallam na Senórach 18.64

Accounts of a Baltic temple:

Romow and Criwe 19.74

Achilles 14.70-1; 18.165

Acropolis 13.143, 145, 154-6

Adam of Bremen 16.122, 134;

17.5, 19, 22, 28, 99, 106, 112;

19.77, 102, 111-14

Ādinàtha Temple, Orissa 16.8

Advaita Vedānta school 15.3, 4,

13

Aegeus 13.151, 154

Ælfric 17.125

Aeschylus: Danaid trilogy 17.236

Æsir and Vanir 17.42

Afterlife in Ancient China 13.3-

20

Āgamas 16.4

Agganna Suttanta 12.172

Aggesen, Sven 17.121

Agia Barbara 17.202

Agia Domenika 17.201

Agia Elenē 17.201

Agia Paraskeuē 17.202

Agiasma (holy water) 17.224

Agios Athanasios 17.210

Agios Philoppos 17.203

Agni 17.172; 19.253-8

Agricola 18.182

Agricultural year in Greece

17.202-5

Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum

(Summary of the Histories of

the Kings of Norway) 16.123

Ahiram, King 11.24

Aided Chloinne Turenn 14.35

Aided Con Roí mac Dáirí (The

Death of Cú Roí) 14.30, 172

Aided Crimthann Mac Fidaig,

18.91

Ailbe of Emly, St 18.61

Ajanta frescoes (100-500 CE)

11.161

akashka, 18.46, 47

Akkadian Creation Epic 12.56

Akkadian, Akkadians 11.33, 34,

46-8

Alcmaeon of Croton, 15.223, 228

Alemanno, Yohanan 14.98

Allen, N .J.15.83, 84

Alluwamnash 13.133, 138

Alōnarēs (thresher) 17.203

Alphabet 11.23-68

Alternate succession 14.85-91

Altram Tige Dá Medar (The

Fosterage of the House of Two

Goblets) 14.27; 18.114

Amairgen, father of St Finnbarr

of Cork 18.61

Ammonites, 18.94

Ammunash 13.133, 136

Amsskaapipikani 18.26

Ananda Matha Ashram 12.194-

201

Anastenaria, Anastenarides

17.200-3, 223, 232

Anatomy of Criticism .17.152

Anaximander 12.38-40; 15.223,

227, 237


224

Ancient Egyptian civil calendar

12.58

Ancient Greek cosmos 12.21-52

Ancient History (Shang shu or

Shu Ching) 12.55, 59

Ancient Indian cosmology

19.251-62

Ancus 17.166

Andean cosmology 20.97-120

Andojas (the god of water) 19.21

Aïgada 11.6, 7

Angrboda 17.114

Annales Veteris et Novi

Testamenti 13.76

Annals of Ulster 15.137, 146

Annunciation Day 18.194

Annunciation, The 19.43

Annwfn/Annwn (Welsh

Otherworld) 14.158, 163-5

Anthesterion, Anthesteria festival

17.216, 219, 220, 235, 238

Anthony, David 14.119-24

Anthropology 14.3-6, 181-5,

211-26; 15.111-27

Antisuyu 13.120-2

Anund 17.168

Anuruddha 12.169

Aphrodite 17.237, 245

Apis bull 12.14

Apokreos 17.209

Apollodorus 13.145

Apollonius Rhodius 15.243-71

Apostles 12.203-29

Apparition (rising of solar sun in

East) 18.160

Application of Myth/Ritual

theory to literature 17.151-3

Ara Pacis Augustae 15.138

Arachne 20.134, 135

Aramaic, Aramaeans 11.24, 27;

18.146, 156-8

Araõyakaõóa 11.5

Arawn, king of Annwn 19.137

Arbois de Jubainville 18.89

Arbor scientiae (Lull, Raymond)

14.95

Archaeology 15.129-46; 19.181-

211

Archaic Cosmos: Polarity, Space

and Time 12.58; 16.151, 157

Archianastenaris, 17.223, 228,

245

Architecture 12.115-29, 163-92,

241-64; 16.3-42

Ard Draoi 18.130

Arendt, Hannah 18.163

Argonautica 15.243-71

Argonauts of the Western Pacific

19.185

Argonauts 15.243-71

Argos 13.145

Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso

.18.229

Aristophanes: The Frogs 17.239

Aristotle 12.23, 31-49; 15.24,

51-9, 77, 78, 88, 168; 17.231,

234

Arjuna 14.52-4

Arran 13.81

Arrēphoroi 20.156, 163

Artemis 13.157

Arthaśāstra 15.186, 187

Asclepius 12.29, 48

Åsen, Ivar 17.67

Ashvins 19.196, 197

Asia Minor 17.200

Aśokavana 11.6, 16-9

Aspatria cross 17.117

Assemblies in Indo-European

lands 19.103

Astarte 11.26

asty 13.144, 145, 151, 157

Name and Subject Index

225

Aśvins 19.257

Athanasius, St 18.211

Atharva Veda 14.26, 31

Athena 13.143-73; 20.134, 135

Athena, festivals of 20.163-7

Athena’s Peplos 20.155-82

Athenian contest myth 13.145-7

Athenian Polis, cosmology of the

13.143-73

Athens 13.143-73

Atlamál 17.104

Atrahasis 12.55

Attic cults and myth 13.157-8

Attica 13.143, 144-57; 17.203,

206

Audacht Morainn (The Testament

of Morand) 15.177-9

Auðhumla 17.44, 45, 54

Augustine, St 15.208-19

Aukštadvaris 19.56

Aun 17.168

Autumn Equinox 18.121

Avalokiteshvara 11.162

Avesta 14.25; 17.167

Avestan cosmogonic myth 17.170

Avignon popes 14.94, 98

axes-mundi 12.118-21, 126-7,

177; 13.111; 19.4, 17, 132

Ayn al-Qudāt Hamadānī 12.67

Ayodhyākāõóa 11.5,6

’Azīz al-Dīn Nasafī 12.67, 76

Aziz, B. 14.182, 183

Aztecs 13.111, 112; 20.36, 37

ba 12.13

Baal 11.26; 18.97

Babo or Baubō 17.201, 207, 215-

7, 240, 246

Bacchylides 13.150, 151

Bahubali (Bhàubalī), Kumbhoj,

Maharashtra 16.11

Bakhtin, Mikhail 11.165; 14.168;

16.156

Bālakāõóa 11.5

Baldr 17.89; 19.201

Balkan, Balkans 17.200, 201,

209; 18.207-10, 219-21

Balmaclellan, Scotland witchcraft

in 15.147-65

Balnuaran of Clava, Inverness-

shire 18.35

Balts in Pre-Historic Times, The

19.69

Banks, Mary Macleod 16.199

Barbara’s Day, St 18.213

Barber, C. L. 17.151

Barber, Elizabeth J.W. 14.125-9

Barthes, Roland 20.122

Battle of Mag Mucrama, The

13.59

Battle of Moytura 14.35

Batto, Bernard F. 12.55

baul session 16.55

Bayeux tapestry 20.137, 144

Beadworking, Sioux 20.17-32

Bealtaine 18.121

Bear-Butte pouch (Sioux) 20.23-

8

Beck, Guy 13.40

Bede: Ecclesiastical History of

the English People 15.217;

17.8

Begging at the New Year

19.155-79

Beginnings and ends of the

Twelve Days, The 18.216

Behemoth 17.116

Being and Emptiness - dualism

15.13

Bel 18.97

Beliajus, Vytautas F. 19.165

Bella, Lajos 13.49


226

Bening, Simon 18.180

Benoit, Fernand 13.54, 55, 61

Benveniste, Émile 14.15; 15.168,

172

Beowulf 17.52, 78, 85- 7, 96, 97,

104, 110, 111

Bergaigne, Abel 19.253

Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay

18.109

Bernardi, Mario 18.230

Bernardus Silvestris:

Cosmographia 15.203

berserkur warrior 17.24

Bestiaries 17.120-2, 127, 128

Bet Shemesh 11.26, 35, 42-4

Bethu Brigte 18.81

Bhagavad-Gītā 12.131-62;

13.36; 14.93

Bhāgavata Purāõa 11.3

Bharata 11.6

Biardeau, Madeleine 14.29

Bible, Biblical 12.195; 18.95, 96

Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)

13.145

Bieler, Ludwig 18.87

Bihar 12.117-8

Bikhovets, chronicle of 19.115

Bil 18.132

Binchy, Daniel A. 14.160;

15.170, 191

Biographies of Women 12.59

Biondini, Giacobbe 18.224-52

Birrell, Anne 11.69-77

Björnsson, Árni 16.126, 136, 154

Blackfoot ritual year, The 18.19-

33

Blood as image of fire in Baltic

mythology 19.21-42

Body in Ancient Greece 12.29-

36

Boethius 13.23

Bogatyrev, Petr 18.208

Bolivia 20.101, 113

Bon 18.9, 12, 14, 16

Boniface VIII, Pope 14.95

Book of Daniel 18.97

Book of Kells 12.203-22

Book of Leinster 13.60; 18.80

Book of Revelation 17.116

Book of Settlements, The 16.118

Book of the Opening of the

Mouth for Breathing 12.11-4

Book of the Prophet Jeremiah,

The 15.177

Books of Hours 18.173-91

Borgeaud, Philippe 12.60

Bosnia 17.180, 192

Boukoleion 17.238

Bowler, P. 13.71-5, 78

Boyancé, Pierre 19.220

Boyarin, Daniel 18.145

Boyer, R. 19.214

Bragi 17.13

Brahma, Brahman, Brahmans

12.116, 120; 14.33; 15.94, 95,

171; 17.169-76; 19.251-62

Brasche, Pastor 19.66

Braudel, Fernand 17.197

Bray, Dorothy Ann 18.82

Bregenhöj, Carsten 19.170

Brennu-Njáls saga 17.92

Breton cycle 18.229

Bríd, effigy of 18.128

Brigid 18.57-85, 112

Brigit, St 17.124; 18.57, 59, 77,

81, 87, 93

Brigit’s Well 18.127

Bronze Age 11.23-30; 16.89;

19.181-211

Brot af Þórðar sögu hreðu in the

Vatnshyrna MS 17.11

Brutheno 19.77


227

Brynhildr 20.136-40

Buddha, Buddhist, Buddhism

11.56, 58; 12.115, 130-47,

153, 163-92; 15.45, 63, 69-71,

171, 172-4, 180-8

Buddhism, Indian 11.161

Buddhism, Tibetan 11.155, 160-

5

Buffoon 18.233, 246-8

Bulgaria, Bulgarian, Bulgarians

17.183, 185, 189, 201; 18.193-

222;

Bulgarians in Dobrudza 17.181

Bull of Marathon 13.151-5

Búri 17.44, 45, 54

Burkert, Walter 17.154

Burma 12.185

Burnet, Thomas 13.77

Burrell manuscripts 11.127

Bury St Edmunds 17.125

Butler, E.M. 17.151

Buxton, Richard 12.53, 58

Byblos 11.24-8

Byzantine, Byzantines,

Byzantium 12.248, 17.198,

199, 216, 222; 18.158, 160-70,

20.211-13, 216

Caer Feddwid (Fortress of

intoxication) 14.163

Caer Siddi (Fortress of the living)

14.162

Caer Wydr (Fortress of glass)

14.163

Caesar of Heisterbach 17.121

Caesar: De Gallico Bello 18.106

Cahokia (US Midwest) 20.3, 9-

12

Cailleach Bhéarra 18.116

Cait, Hindu month of 16.48, 51,

52, 60, 61, 66, 78, 80

Caith Maigh Tuired 18.93

Calame, Claude 12.60

Calendar celebrations in Scotland

16.195

Calendars 16.43-88, 117-206;

17.163-78; 18.1-254

Calennig in Wales 19.156-64

Calves in Bronze Age Cretan art

16.89

Cambrensis, Giraldus 18.62

Cambridge Ancient History

13.127

Campbell, Joseph 13.36

Canaanites 11.26; 18.94

Candlemas 18.57, 61, 66, 70, 77-

82

Cannibals 15.45-61

Capella, Martianus 13.25

Carey, John 14.158, 162, 165

Carmel (witch) 18.132, 134

Carnival 17.209, 230

Cartledge, Paul 12.59

Casas, Bartolomé de las 13.121

Cassiodorus 13.25

Castor and Polydeukes 19.196,

197

Cath Cairnn Chonaill 14.30

Cath Maige Tuired (The Second

Battle of Moytura) 14.35;

17.47

Cath Ruis na Ríg 18.60

Catherine, St 18.210

Cattleraid of Regamna, The

13.61

Caucasians 14.9-20

Celestial Mountain 19.4-17

Celsus 12.34-5

Celtic calendar 16.161, 163

Celtic iconography 11.125-38;

13.49-68; 19.137-53

Celtic otherworld 14.157-77

Celts, Celtic 16.151, 160-82;


228

18.35-41, 57-76, 77-119, 121-

42, 165-71

Cenn Cruaich or Cromm 18.87

Cerne Abbas Giant 11.127, 129-

32

Cerne Abbey 11.131

Cernunnos on Gundestrup

Cauldron 19.139, 144

Cerretti, Domenico 18.231

Ch’ang O 12.57; 13.14

Ch’ih-yu 14.130

Ch’oe Malli 11.63-5

Ch’u Tz’u 11.72

Chac, Chacs 20.80, 81

chakkavattin (Universal

Monarch) 15.181-8

Chakkavatti-Sīhanāda-Sutta (The

Sutra of the Lion’s Roar of a

Universal Monarch) 15.174,

180, 181-6, 196

Chalchiuhtlicue (Nahuatl

goddess) 20.58, 59

Chamberlain, Rebecca 20.4-5

Chang, Chan 11.71

Chang, K.C. 13.125; 14.89

Chang, Tsung-tung 14.130

Chaos: Making a New Science

14.221-3

Charachidzé, Georges 14.9, 13

Charax of Pergamum 14.86

Chariot-racing, Roman and

Byzantine 14.86, 87

charivari 16.188-91

Charlemagne, Emperor 12.242

Chechen, Chechens 14.13-4

Chi (as Chinese place of

kingship) 13.120-4

Chia 13.120, 122, 124

Chia Yi 13.12

Chicomecoatl (Aztec goddess)

20.48

Children as charioteers in Roman

funerary art 19.233, 234

Chile 20.98, 101

Chilton, Bruce 18.144

China, Chinese 12.37-51;

16.152, 157, 216

Chinchaysuyu 13.120, 122

Chinese emperors 18.161

Chinese funerary painting 13.3-

20

Chinese mythology 11.69-78;

12.53-63, 65-81

Chinese writing 11.55-62, 65

Chiphyǒn-jǒn (Hall of Assembled

Worthies) 11.57-61, 63

Chong Inji 11.58-62

Chosǒn dynasty (1392-1910)

11.57, 63, 66

Chou calendrical text 12.58

Chrétien de Troyes: Perceval, ou

le Conte del Graal 15.205,

206

Christ, Jesus 12.205-13; 17.19,

107, 118, 121; 18.70, 77, 78,

84, 145-54, 161, 163, 166,

167, 198, 215; 19.30, 31, 32,

33, 36

Christian and Buddhist polities in

Ireland and India, The 15.172-

4

Christian, Christians, Christianity

12.193-239; 15.3, 61, 63-75

91, 99, 150, 154, 171-4, 179,

203-19; 16.123-6, 131, 141,

146, 156, 161, 163, 166, 170,

175, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185,

186, 187, 191, 207, 210; 17.8,

18, 21, 25, 113, 119, 126, 127,

128, 142, 160, 179, 186, 199,

204, 206, 212, 230, 244; 18.57,

65, 77-85, 87, 91, 94, 111, 121,


229

127, 134, 138, 140-6, 151, 153,

156, 157, 160, 161, 166, 175,

180, 186, 207, 208, 211, 216,

229, 256

Christianisation of Jämtland

17.101

Chrysippus 12.41

Chu Hsi 11.59, 63

Churning of the Milky Ocean

(sammucchaõā) 12.116;

14.34

Cinnabar 11.143

Circassians, Abkhazians and

Ubykhs 14.107, 108

Circle 17.190

Circus 19.220, 221, 230, 248

City of God 15.208, 210, 211

Classic of Change (I Ching)

12.55

Classic of Mountains and Seas

12.59

Classical Greek narratives,

weaving and poetry in

20.121-51

Cleanness 17.72

Cleanthes 12.41

Clement VIII, Pope 14.98

Clerical Buddhism 14.181-3

Clothing, Human presence and

human sacrifice 20.110-11

Cobo, Bernabé 20.100-2

Code of Manu 17.169

Cogitosus: Vita Secunda Sanctae

Brigitae 18.80, 81

Cohodas, Marvin 20.5

Cōla temples 11.12

Colchians 15.243-62

Colgan: Vita Quarta and Vita

Tertia 18.87, 88

Coligny Calendar 16.161, 174;

18.106

Collasuyu 13.120, 122

Collectio Canonum 15.173, 199

Colours and directions 18.11-2

Columba, St 15.169

Commentary of Tso (Tso chuan)

12.55

Compagnia del Maggio di

Frassinoro 18.236

Comparative Mythologists,

Archaeologists and Anthropo-

logists 14.119-25

Comparative Technique in

Linguistics and Mythology

14.103-17

Conaire 15.188; 18.166

Conchobar 13.60

Confessio of St Patrick 18.63

Confessions of St Augustine

12.205, 213; 15.208, 209-11

Confucian philosophy 11.61, 65;

12.55, 72

Constantine III, Emperor 15.212

Constantine V, Emperor 12.251

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus

12.248, 249

Constantine, First Emperor

12.236, 243, 245; 18.161

Constantine’s Battle of Milvian

Bridge 15.212

Constantinople / Istanbul 12.345,

247, 252

Cook, A. B. 17.149

Corbie, Janet 15.149, 150

Corinth 13.145, 150

Cormac, Bishop 18.79

Cormac mac Airt 18.61, 70, 74,

79, 84, 112, 166, 168, 170

Cornford, F.M. 17.149, 151, 157,

158

Cosmic Jaina sculpture and

architecture 16.10


230

Council of Nicaea 18.146

Count Floral 16.154

Coupe, Laurence 15.27

Couronians 19.72, 88

Cours de linguistique générale

14.4, 5

Cow of Plenty 14.26-32

Creation of Incarnate Lamas

14.192-4

creeling 16.196, 202

Crete, Cretan 16.89, 91-100

Críth Gablach 15.170

Criwo Cyrwaito 19.77

Croagh Patrick 18.134

Crom Cróich 18.88

Crom Dubh 18.91, 134

Cromm Cruaich 18.87-100

Cronica Terre Prussie 19.75

Cross-Canonby church 17.117

Crystal Sands, The 12.181

Cú Chulainn 13.60, 61; 18.63,

64, 69, 72, 115, 127, 165-8

Cúchulainn 14.51-6

Cumont, Franz 19.213-49

Cuneiform 11.33-53

Cuntisuyu 13.120, 122

Curcho 19.78

Curonian, Curonians 19.71, 102,

116

Curteys, William 17.126

Cusco (Cuzco, Cuzco Valley),

Peru 13.120, 121; 20.97-102

Cyclical time 18.193

Da Derga’s Hostel 18.165

Dabla Pangdi 18.39

Dädesjö church (Smaland)

17.120

Daedalus 12.53, 61

Dagda 18.111, 113

Dáithí Ó hÓgáin 18.91

Dalai Lamas 11.161; 14.179,185,

188, 197, 198, 201

Dalton, John P. 18.91

Damastes Procrustes 13.150

Damico, Helen 17.70

Danaher, Kevin 18.131

Danes, Danish, Denmark 17.4,

31, 87, 107, 125, 128; 19.107,

109, 110, 113, 121, 124

Daniélou, Alain 13.29, 40

Dante: Inferno 18.230

dao (universal law) 11.140, 144,

145, 146

Daoxue zhuan (Biographies of

students of the dao) 11.146-9

Darius, King 15.168

Darraðarljóð (song of the

Valkyries) 20.142, 143

Darwin, Charles (The Descent of

Man) 13.86; 15.57, 59

Darwin, Erasmus 13.86

Daśaratha 11.6

Dassai 18.39

Daughters of the Sun (Saules

Meitas) 19.11

Davidson, Hilda Ellis 18.103

Davies, Glenys 19.216, 225

Davies, Penelope 19.223

Day of the Exaltation of the

Cross 18.194, 203

De ceremoniis of Constantine VII

18.162

de Chobham, Thomas 17.122

de Croy, Jean 18.183

De duodecim abusiuis saeculi

(Concerning the twelve abuses

of the world) 15.168-201

De Gabail in t-Sída (The Taking

of the Hollow Hill) 18.93

de Heusch, Luc 18.163


231

De Motu Animalium (Aristotle)

12.44

De Republica (Cicero) 13.25

Dean, D. 13.71, 73, 85

Debating Durkheim (Allen, N.J.)

14.85, 86

Dechtine 13.60

Delhi 12.118, 124

Delphi 17.227

Demeter 13.158; 17.205-8, 213,

216, 218, 220, 233, 236, 237,

241-7

Descartes, René 13.43

Destiny of a King, The 15.79, 89,

199

Deucalion 17.171

Deucalion’s Flood 17.220

devas (gods) 16.52

Devī 12.57

Devil 19.46, 53, 54, 59, 79, 85-9,

94

Dhammapada Commentary

12.195

Dhàtakīkhaõóa 16.32

Diarmaid mac Fergus 18.166

Dieva Dēli (Sons of God) 19.11

Dievs 19.11

Digambara temple complex,

Hastinapur, Haryana 16.15

Dimas, Stephanie 19.231

Dimitrov Day (St Dimiter’s Day)

18.194, 204

Dinnsheanchas 18.87-99

Diogenes of Apollonia 12.31, 38

Dionysian agricultural rituals

17.216

Dionysian rites 19.215, 219

Dionysius of Halicarnassus

17.166

Dionysos, Dionysian 17.200, 209,

211, 213-6, 218, 219, 228,

236, 238-42

Dioscuric Twins 14.106; 19.196,

197, 202

Dis Pater (Father of Riches)

16.176

Dísablót in Early Medieval Scan-

dinavian Belief 16.117-49

Discourses of the States (Kuo yü)

12.55

Dísir (female spirits) 16.117-49

Dísir, Swedish sources on the

worship of the 16.133

Distaff designs 19.2-20

Divàlī or Dipàvalī 16.62-5, 70-2,

78

Divine twins in Indo-European

religion, The 19.187-92

Divine Wisdom (icon) 11.156,

157

Donghai Xiaotong 11.144

Doniger, Wendy 14.31; 19.258

Dormition of the Panagia 17.201,

230

Dot-in-square motif 20.42-50

Doty, William G. 12.57

Douglas, Mary 12.225, 241

Dragons in Chinese mythology

13.8, 9, 14-6

Draguignan 19.213

Dream visions (Sioux) 20.17-32

Drews, Robert 14.88

Drought 17.189, 202-5

Druids 15.79, 104, 171, 172;

18.100, 119, 121, 136-8

Duality in Indo-European

sovereignty 14.57-67, 85-91

Dubuisson, Daniel 15.78, 80, 83,

84, 87, 89

Dudley Edwards, Leila 18.126

Dumézil, Georges 12.244, 245,

252; 14.3-140; 15.78-84, 89,


232

105, 108, 172, 173, 199, 221;

16.153, 156-8; 17.167, 168,

176, 177; 18.62, 70, 72, 93,

113, 160, 167, 169; 19.201,

202

Dumont, Jean-Paul 15.112, 120,

125

Dunbar, Sir David 15.151

Dura Synagogue 14.93, 95

Dúran, Fray Diego 13.114

Duren jing (Scripture of

salvation) 11.141

Durkheim, Emile 14.51; 15.49;

17.148, 172

Duryodhana 17.170

Dusburg, Peter von 19.75, 78,

93-100, 114-7

Duvall, David 18.20

dvergar (pl.; singular: dvergur)

17.21, 25

Dying for the Gods 15.142, 146

Dynastic succession 13.127-41

Early Indic and Irish political

thought 15.167-201

East/Red in Archaic Celtic

Cosmology 18.111, 112

Easter 19.43, 55

Ebers papyrus 12.10

Eblis 17.167

Ecclesiastes 15.174

Echdonn (Dark Horse) 18.114

Echtra Laegaire (Laeghaire’s

Adventure) 14.163

Echtra Nerai 14.173

Echtrae Chonlai (Adventure of

Conle) 14.159, 165, 166

Echtrae Cormaic 14.160

Eddic poem Thrymskviða 17.94

Eddic poem Völuspá 17.115

Eddic poems 16.119, 139

Edmund, King of East Anglia, St

17.125

Egeria 18.78

Egill Skalla-Grímsson 17.83, 85,

92, 95

Egils saga 16.129

Egypt, Egyptian 11.28-9, 41-2,

45;12.3-20, 56; 16.93

Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus 15.57

Eibner-Persy, Alexandrine

13.51, 56

Einhorn, Paul 19.81-91

Eiríks saga rauða (The Saga of

Erik the Red) 17.59, 65, 68, 69

Eiríksmál 17.93

Eleusinian mysteries 17.206, 233

Eleusis 17.235, 237

Eliade, Mircea 12.225, 250;

14.93; 17.150; 19.44, 73

Emain Macha 18.165

Embalming 12.3-20

Empedocles 12.38; 15.223

Engnell, Ivan 17.149

Eniņš, Guntis 19.3, 4, 19

Ephesiaca 17.104

Epicureans 12.42, 15.71

Epidemics 12.33

Epiphany 18.199

Epona (horse goddess) 11.136;

13.54, 55, 61; 18.114

Equinoxes 18.37, 121

Era of Romuva, The 19.98

Erasistratus 12.34

Erotes 19.215-30

Erysipelas 19.28, 29, 31

Essentialism 15.120-2

Estonia, Estonians 19.71, 90,

107, 108, 117

Estonian folk beliefs 19.168, 170

Estridson, Sven 17.99

Ethiopians 13.159, 160

Eve 20.212, 214


233

Evolution 13.69-89

Exodus 11.141

Eyrbyggja saga 16.128; 17.9, 18,

19

Færøya Kvæði 17.107

Faroes 17.14

Farr, Carol 12.207, 211, 212

Feminist Companion to

Mythology, The 12.56

Fenrir or Fenrisúlf 17.114

Fergusson, Francis 17.151

Fernando de Lucena, Master

18.183

Festin d’immortalité, Le 14.22

Fianna 18.112

Ficino, Marsilio 14.98

Fingal’s Cave 13.78

Finkelberg, Margalit 15.85, 89

Fire 19.21-38, 46, 53, 54, 65, 90,

99, 118, 134

Flann mac Dima 18.166

Flateyjarbók 17.9

Flemish books of hours 18.184

Fletcher, Alexander, of Saltoun

15.152

Flora Baum 20.183

Florentine Codex 13.112-6

Fludd, Robert 13.21, 23

Foglaim ConCulainn (The

Training of Cúchulainn)

14.53

Fomoire 18.89-99

Fontana, S. 18.230

Ford, Patrick 14.171

Fort of Mandu, Madhya Pradesh

16.8, 18

Fortune 16.185-9, 208

Fourth function in Indo-European

ideology 14.16-7

Francis, St 17.124

François de Sales, St 15.74

Frankfort, Henri 12.243

Frassinoro, Modena 18.223, 230

Frazer, James G. 15.168; 17.144;

18.136

Freeman, Philip 14.158

Frey 17.100, 107, 108

Freyja 16.120; 17.7, 43, 52, 53,

55-8, 88

Freyr 17.6-8, 11, 13, 16, 42, 43,

52, 83, 91

Friederici, W. 19.98

Friedrich, Paul 14.93

Frigg 16.120

From Ritual to Romance 17.151

Frösön, Church of 17.100, 101,

106

Frye, Northrop 17.151, 152

Fu Hsi 13.16

Funerary monuments 11.117-23

Fu-sang (Leaning Mulberry)

13.14

fylgjur (fetches) 16.130

Gabija (Lithuanian goddess of the

home fireplace) 19.21

Gaborieau, Marc 16.47, 74, 75

Gabrene, Bulgaria 18.194

Gafori, Franchino 13.23, 24

Gaia 17.236, 241

Galahad 15.204-19

Galatia, Galatians 12.223, 235

Galen 12.34-6, 49

Gallus, Sándor 13.50, 52, 56

Galoshins folk-play 16.202

Gambolling Calf in Bronze Age

Crete, The 16.89

Gan Ji 11.145

Gan Jun 11.148

Ganges, River 12.127, 159

García Zambrano, Ángel 20.79

Gaudapāda – Advaita Vedānta

School 15.4


234

Gautreks saga 17.83, 84

Gazzaniga, Michael 14.126

Ge (Greek Earth Goddess)

13.123, 125

Ge Hong 11.143, 144

Geertz, Clifford 15.113, 115,

120, 125, 199

Geikie, Archibald 13.69,70

Geirstaðaálfur, Ólafur 17.9

Gell, Alfred 14.218-23; 17.163

Geluk order 11.161

Gelukpa order (of Tibetan

monks) 14.179-209

Gender 15.115-7; 19.251-62;

20.124-30

Genesis 18.143, 148-50, 153-7,

180

Genesis Rabbah 18.153

Gennep, Arnold Van 19.172

Geology 13.69-89

George, Gail 19.160, 162

George, St 14.11-15; 18.194,

195, 200-17; 19.43

Georgian sacred sites and deities

14.10-15

Gerðr 17.42

Geri and Freki 17.114

German missionaries 19.65

German, Germans 19.63, 65, 72-

92, 100, 105, 112

German’s funeral (doll of clay,

Western Bulgaria and Eastern

Serbia) 17.185

Germania 17.102, 106; 19.70

Geschichte der Geologie und

Palaontologie 13.71

Geshe Ngawang Changchub

14.187

gessa, “prohibitions” 18.165

Gesta Danorum (Saxo

Grammaticus) 17.88

Gezer calendar 11.24

Ghent-Bruges illuminators

18.180

Ghçtá (ghee) 19.257, 258

giants (Jötnar) 17.42

Giants’ Causeway 13.78

Gift exchange 19.170

Gildas, St: De excidio Britonum

15.176

Gilgamesh Epic 17.171

Gimbutas, Marija 14.15, 123;

19.69, 79

Girard, René 17.153

Girvan, Lindsay 18.35

Giza 12.3, 5

Glas Ghaibhleann (Grey Cow of

Gobán) 14.26-36, 40

Gluckman, Max 17.150

Gnosticism 18.145

goði 17.10-20, 24, 28; 19.103,

104

Godwin, Joyce 13.43

Golden Bough, The 17.144, 159;

18.91

Golden Fleece 15.243

Golden Temple at Amritsar

12.117

Gong Song 11.145

Goodman, Felicitas 19.142

Gosforth Cross 17.118

Gospel of St John 18.143

Gospel of St Thomas 18.143

Gramsci, Antonio 18.234

Granet, Marcel 12.54; 16.152

Great Chain of Being, The

14.217

Greece, Greek, Greeks 14.104-

13; 17.147, 197-251; 18.113,

115, 143-9, 165, 208, 209;

20.155-82

Greek Calendar Customs 19.165


235

Greeks, The: A Portrait of Self

and Others 12.59

Green Man 18.129

Green, Ernestene L. 15.129

Green, Miranda 15.142, 143;

19.139-43

Greenland 17.59, 61

Gregory the Great, St 16.123;

20.241

Grettis saga 17.87

Grimal, Pierre 15.131

Grimani Breviary 18.185

Grímnismál 17.3

Grisward, Joel H. 15.204

Grunau, Simon 19.76-80, 89, 94

Grýla (Growler) 16.136-8, 144-7

Gu Huan 11.149

Guðríðr 17.60

Guðrún 20.136-40

Guðrúnarqviða (Lay of Guthrún)

20.137, 138

Guinevere 15.207

Guisers, guising 16.196, 197,

201, 202

Gujarat 12.117, 124, 126

Gulaþingslög 17.9

Gundestrup cauldron 13.57

Gupte, B.A. 17.174

Gurney, O.R. 13.127, 137

Gutnalthinget 19.108

guzhdor 18.49

Gylfaginning 17.46

gyryny poton 18.47

Haase, Rudolph 13.25

Habermas, Jürgen 15.56

Hades (Pluton) 17.206, 237

Hadot, Pierre 15.67

Haghia Sophia 12.242, 246

Hákon the Good, King 16.124

Hákonar saga goða 17.12

Hákonarmál 17.93

Hall, Sir James 13.79,81,82

Hall, Stephen 18.39

Hallstatt period 13.49-68

Hamdir and Sörli 19.196

Hamdismál 17.104

Hamp, Eric 18.58, 79

Han dynasty (206 BCE-25 CE)

11.139, 145; 12.51, 59

Han Shu 12.33

Han’gŭl alphabet of Korea

11.55-68

Hanumān 11.3-6, 15-9

Haralds saga ins hárfagra 17.87

Hárbarðsljóð 17.84, 91

Hare, Richard 15.52, 53

Harmonics 12.42

Harper, Donald 11.71

Harrison, Jane 17.147-59, 161,

245, 248

Harvest festivals 15.97-105

Harvest Queen 18.137

Håshang 17.167

Hastrup, Kirsten 17.40

Hathapradipika 13.39

Haugen, Einar 15.80; 17.40

Hauksbók 17.11

Hávamál 17.25, 105

Hawkes, David 11.72-3

Hayden, Brian 18.135

Heavenly Questions, The (Ch’ü

Yüan) 14.131

Hebrew, Hebraic 18.96, 143-58

Hector 18.165

Hecuba (Euripides) 20.159

Heimskringla (Snorri Sturluson)

16.123; 17.87; 20.132, 133

Heinrich of Lettland 19.108

“Heinrich’s Chronicle” 19.70

Heisenberg, Werner 15.113-5

Hel 17.114


236

Helen/Helena 19.196, 197;

20.136-40

Hephaistos 13.158; 14.128

Hera 13.145; 17.233, 237

Heraclitus 12.38

Herakles 19.202

Herbert, Máire 15.179, 189

heristēs 17.203

Herman Krywyen 19.116

Hero, The 17.152

Herodotus 12.4, 59; 13.159

Herophilus 12.34

Hesiod 12.22-8, 37; 15.27, 190;

17.203, 231

Hick, John 15.7

hieros gamos 17.202, 206, 219,

234-8, 240

Hill-figures 11.125-38

Himmelmann-Wildschütz,

Nikolaus 19.221, 229

Hindu, Hindus, Hinduism

12.115-92; 15.3; 16.33, 36-87;

17.164-9, 174-7; 18.108

Hippios “Horse-like One”

18.114

Hippocrates 15.223-41

Hippocratic corpus 12.29-37, 45-

8

Hippocratic treatise On Regimen

15.225-36

Hippodamia 14.86-8

Hippodrome 18.161

Historia Animalium 12.23, 31

Historia de México 13.115

Historia Lettica 19.82

Historic Scotland 15.140

Historical Records 12.59

History of Ireland 14.30

16.121

Hitting with sticks as New Year

Custom 19.171, 172

Hittite goddesses 20.186

Hittite-Akkadian inscription

13.127, 128

Hittites 13.127-41; 14.88

Hobbes, Thomas 15.46, 47

Hocart, A. M. 17.149

Hoernes, Rudolf 13.51, 52, 56

Hofstaðir 17.3, 10, 13, 15, 26,

27, 33

Hofvin 17.3

Holã season 16.52, 65, 66, 78,

81, 83

d’Holbach, Baron P. 13.78

Holly King 18.122

Holograms, holography 15.9-13,

19

Holy cows 18.35-40

Homer 12.22-8, 37; 13.158, 160;

15.27, 190; 17.243; 20.136,

137

Hooke, Robert 13.77

Hooke, S.H. 17.147

Hopi 20.41, 47-50

Horenbout, Gerard 18.183, 185

Hörgabrúður 16.120

Horse fights, races and sacrifice

15.98-104

Horse-racing 16.199, 200, 202

Horus, sons of 12.9

Hoysaëa Amçtēśvara Temple

11.3-22

Hrólfs saga kraka 17.92

Hsiang Ch’u 11.75, 76

Hsin 13.120-4

Hsin Chui, Lady 13.4-20

Huainan 11.140

Huai-nan Tzu 12.58

Huan Kai 11.147

Huang-ti (The Yellow Emperor)

14.130

Huang-Tsan 11.58


237

Hua-yang kuo-chih 11.76

Huey Tozoztli feast 13.114

Huitzilopochtli 13.111

Huizinga, J. 18.248

Human remains and archaeology

15.141-4

Humans as evolved social

animals 15.47-50

Hume, David: Treatise of Human

Nature 15.160

Humphrey, John 19.224, 233,

234

Hunmin chŏngǔm (Teaching the

People Correct Speech) 11.58

Hunmin chŏngǔm haerye

(Explanation of Hunmin

chongum) 11.58-61, 63

hun-soul 13.3, 9-15

Hurrian alphabet 11.44

Huskinson, Janet 19.230, 233

Hutton, James 13 69-89

Huttonian Theory of the Earth,

Illustrations of the 13.71

Huxley, Aldous 13.36

Hyde, Lewis 11.167, 168

Hyman, Stanley Edgar 17.151

Hynes, William J. 12.57

Hypermestra 17.237

I Reali di Francia (The Kings of

France) 18.229

Iblis (Satan) 12.67

Ibn al-’Arabī 12.73,77

Ibn Fadlān 17.106

Iceland, Icelandic 16.118-57;

17.3-36, 40, 60, 61, 65, 75, 91,

100, 120

Icons 17.183, 191, 212, 220-8

Ihy, child of Hathor 16.95

Il Re della Montagna 18.234

Iliad, The 12.23-7; 15.251;

20.136

Images of fire in Baltic

mythology 19.21, 22

Imaginary Greece: The Contexts

of Mythology 12.58

Imbolc 18.57-85, 110-16, 121,

127-9

Immram Brain 14.166

Impertinence and Imposture of

Modern Antiquaries Display-

ed, The 11.135

Inca Civilization in Cuzco

13.120, 121

Inca denary system 13.119-26

Inca mountaintop sacrifices

20.101-4

Inca textiles 20.100, 101

Inca, Incas 13.119-23; 20.97-120

Incarnate Lamas 14.179-209

Index Librorum Prohibitorum

18.234

India, Indian 15.79-83, 94, 167,

171-3, 186-9 ; 16.3, 6, 16, 17,

26, 31-49, 57, 69, 71, 73, 83-6,

112

Indian Christian Architecture

12.193-202

Indian cosmic time 17.169-72

Indo-European 14.3-140;

17.163-78, 193; 18.39, 59, 65,

79, 93, 103, 107-15, 160, 163,

167, 169, 193, 204, 208

Indo-European tripartite ideology

16.153; 17.109

Indra 14.32, 86; 17.172; 19.254,

257

Indrajit 11.6

Ingjald 17.168

Inmar, God of heaven 18.51, 52

Inscape 12.193, 194

Intercalation 16.163, 173

Invernizio, Carolina 18.230


238

Investigation of the Principles of

Knowledge, and of the Pro-

gress of Reason, from Sense to

Science and Philosophy, An

13.75

Ion (Euripides) 20.172

Iona 12.203, 252

Iphigenia in Tauris 20.159

Iranian 16.151

Ireland, Irish 14.106-13; 15.99,

167-201; 16.159-82; 18.57-85,

87-101, 103-19, 121-42, 165,

166

Iron Age 11.24, 132-3, 136;

19.200-2

Iron-Age Scandinavia 17.8

Islam, Islamic 12.65-81, 115-30;

18.153, 157

Íslensk hómilíubók 17.21

Israel 12.227, 230

I-Thou relationship (in religious

tradition) 15.3, 4, 16, 20

Jain, Jaina, Jainism 12.115-30;

16.3-42

Jaina art and architecture 16.3-42

Jambū Dvīpa (rose-apple tree

island) 16.9-16, 25

Jambukeshvara Temple 12.117

James IV 18.188

James VI 16.200

James, E .O. 17.149

James, Jamie 13.22

Jameson, Robert 13.76

Jamshid 17.167

Janaka 11.6

Janus 18.175

Japan, Japanese 18.3-17

Jason 15.243-71

Java 12.168, 179

Jen 13.120-24

Jerusalem Temple 12.225-8,

230-2; 18.144

Jews, Judaism, Jewish 12.215,

223-35; 14.93-101; 17.184;

18.143-6, 153-8

jihād 12.74

Jina 16.16, 17, 40

Jingji zhi (Treatise on Literature)

11.139

Jiu dan jin ye jing (Scripture of

liquefaction of gold and nine

kinds of cinnabar) 11.145

John Climacus, St 11.159

John the Baptist 11.156; 16.185-

9, 207; 18.200, 212-3

John’s Eve, St 16.187

Johnson, Aubrey 17.149

Johnstone, Fraser 18.35

Jonas the Monk: Life of Columba

17.123

Jones, Leslie 14.157, 167

Jones, Sir William 14.104, 110

Jónsson, Finnur 17.65

Josephson, Brian 13.30

Jötnar (Giants) 17.42-8, 50, 56

Jung, C. G. 15.26; 17.152

Juriev Day (St George’s Day)

18.194

Justin, St 20.212

Justinian, Emperor 12.242, 246

Juvenal 19.234, 235, 238

Jyoti Sahi 12.194

K’un fish 13.8

K’viria (Georgian deity) 14.11-

12

Kabbalah-Sefirot 14.75-8, 97

Kabyle of Algeria 16.152

Kagyudpa order of Tibetan

monks 14.187, 190

Kalam (dogmatic theology)

12.69


239

Kalenda in Greece 19.165-7

Kalends of March 18.162

Kalevala 19.66

Kalevelis (a god-smith, the

guardian of dead souls) 19.22

Kalogeros ritual 17.199-218,

223, 228, 234, 235, 238, 240,

241

kalpa 11.139, 140

Kant, Immanuel 15.25, 45, 51-8

Kantorowicz, Ernst 12.252

Kara and Ramātas Cliffs 19.15

Karlgren, Bernhard 12.54

karmapas 11.162

Karpathos, Island of 17.200

Kartvelian (South Caucasian)

ideology 14.9-20

Kathisma 18.161

Kathmandu, Kathmandu Valley

11.162, 166; 12.116, 117, 124-

6

Katz, Jonathan 13.28

Kauravas 14.71

Kay, John 13.71,73

Kayser, Hans 13.20

Kearney, Hugh 13.23

Kekrops 13.144-8

Keller figurine, Cahokia 20.9

Kells 12.203

Keng 13.120-4

Kepler, Johannes 13.43

Kerkyon 13.150, 154

Keyumars 17.167

khalīfa 12.74

Khantilish 13.132-7

Khataçuvà 16.50, 59-68, 80-3

Khattusha 13.132

Khattushilish I, King 13.127-36

Khuzziyash 13.133, 136, 137

Kildare 18.80-4, 127

King, kingship 12.242-53; 14.57-

61; 15.83-5, 167-201; 18.122,

132, 136, 159, 160, 163, 166-

9, 230, 234

King’s Two Bodies, The 12.251

Kirk, Geoffrey S. 12.53, 54

Kirwan, Richard 13.72, 78

Kiskindhākāõóa 11.5

Kitson, Joyce 20.17-32

Kivik burial (south-east Skåne,

Sweden) 19.193-6

Kjalnesiaga saga 17.9

Klaustinš, Roberts 19.71

Kluckhohn, Clyde 17.154

Knut, King 17.121

Koimēsē 17.199, 201, 209, 234

Koledari (Bulgaria) 19.155

Kondratiev, Alexei 18.57

Kong Yuanfang 11.146

Kongo spirit possession 19.142

Kore 17.237

Korean language 11.55-68

koshōgatsu (“little new year”)

18.8

Koziol, Geoffrey 18.160

kradie, etor (heart) 12.23

Krappe, Alexander Haggerty

19.171

Krivis 19.93-102, 114-9

Krustu (Cross) Cliff 19.4-6, 14-

17

Kuei 13.120-4

Kuei-yüan ts’ung t’an 11.75

Kujavia (Podgai) 11.118-22

Kumaon, Central Himalayan

Region of 16.43-88

Kumbhakarõa 11.5

Kun 12.57

Kung Kung 12.57

Kunlun mountains 11.148

Kuo-yü (Conversations of the

States) 14.135


240

Kupala, Ivan 18.195

Kupiškis 19.56

Kurin, Richard 12.78, 79

Kwakiutl Hamatsa (Cannibal

Dancer) 19.142, 144

kykeōn 17.239

L’Occident et la religion 15.63,

74, 89

La Flesche, Francis 20.3, 6-12

La Tène period 13.59

Labraid 13.60

Lachami (goddess) 16.62, 79

Lachish 11.26

Ladder of Divine Ascent 11.159

Lady Wang of Purple Tenuity

11.143

Lakoff, George 17.164

Lakùmaõa 11.3-7, 15

Lama Govinda 12.175, 182

Lamas 11.161, 164

Lancelot 15.203-21

Lancillotto e Ginevra 18.230

Landnámabók (The Book of

Settlements) 16.118; 17.3, 11,

14-6, 22, 25, 27, 33

Lange, Jacob 19.86, 87

Language Contact, Creolization,

and Genetic Linguistics

14.122

Lankā 11.3, 5, 10, 13

Larbarna(sh), King 13.128-41

Larrington, Carolyne 12.56

Latgallians, The 19.9-10

Latin 14.104, 106, 110

Lattimore, Richmond 19.219

Latvia, Latvian, Latvians 19.2-

21, 21-5, 29, 31-8, 63-73, 76-

92, 106

Lautenbahs, Jēkabs 19.63, 64,

67, 74, 91

Lawbook of Manu 16.76

Laws (Plato) 12.38, 45, 46

Lawson, John Cuthbert 19.165

Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel

15.78

Leach, Edmund 17.150, 156

Leavitt, John 14.125

Lebor Gabála 18.87-92, 100,

110, 111, 117

Lebuin, The Life of St 19.109

Lectures on the Religion of the

Semites 17.141, 161

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm

13.79

Lengyel settlement of Beześć

Kujawski 11.121-2

Lent 18.213

Les Miserables (Hugo) 18.235

Lettische Mythologie 19.87

Levarie, Siegmund 13.25

Lévi-Strauss, Claude 14.5, 72-3,

120, 213; 15.26, 42, 43, 80-5,

95-7, 120; 17.41, 171

Levy, Ernst 13.25

Lewis 15.93, 94

Lewis, Josie 20.5

Li Ban 13.60

Liber de ascensu et descensu

14.97

Lieh tzu 11.71, 74

Lightning 19.27, 35, 38, 43, 47,

51-4, 60, 84

Lincoln, Bruce 14.24, 29, 30,

120

Lindisfarne 12.205

Lindow man 17.109

Linearbandkeramik 11.119, 120,

122

lingas 12.120, 124

Lingbao jing (Scripture of

spiritual treasure) 11.147


241

Lingshed Monastery, Ladakh

14.189, 194

Lingshu 12.33

Linguistic Diversity in Space and

Time 14.122

Lithuania, Lithuanian, Lithuani-

ans 19.4, 11, 12, 15, 18, 19,

21-42, 43-61, 63, 64, 73, 75,

82, 86, 90, 93-106, 115-9, 124

Littleton, C. Scott 14.3-8, 123;

15.132

Livonian Order 19.108, 114

Livre des Sept Ages du Monde

18.183

Livy 15.179; 17.166

Locasenna 17.93

Loch Bó Finne (Lake of the

White Cow) 14.40

Locke, John 15.46

Loeg 13.60, 61

logos 15.25, 18.148

Loki 17.45-8, 55, 88, 89, 93, 114

Long barrows of Northern

Europe 11.117-23

Long Man of Wilmington

11.127-9

longue durée, la 17.197

Loorits, Oskar 19.168

Lord of Copal, Lord of Rubber

13.115

Lord of the Granary 12.57, 60

Lorenz, Konrad 15.57

Losar (New Year) 18.39

Lucifer 18.166; 19.30

lud (sacrificial grove) 18.44

Lug, Lugh 13.60; 18.64, 115

132, 135, 140

Lughnasa 18.35, 57, 64, 69, 110,

112, 115-9, 133, 134

Lull, Raymond 14.95, 97

Lunar cycle 16.49, 155

Luttrell Psalter 18.188

Luttrell, Sir Geoffrey 18.188

Lyell, Charles 13.71

Lykaios in Arkadia 17.227

Lyle, Emily 12.58; 13.125;

14.77, 123, 134; 16.165, 209,

211, 215, 219; 18.103-8, 112,

113, 184, 204, 207; 19.224

Lynn, Chris 18.165

Mabinogi 11.137; 14.164, 167;

18.114

Mac Cana, Proinsias 14.163

MacCurtain, Margaret 18.82

Macedonia 17.199, 201, 210,

211, 230, 232

Macha 13.60; 18.113, 115

Mackenzie, Sir George 15.149,

158, 159

MacNeill, Eoin 18.90

MacNeill, Máire 18.91, 98

MacPherson, James: Ossian

19.66

MacQueen, J. C. 13.127

Macrobius 13.25

Maddock, Kenneth 15.84

Madhya Pradesh 12.121-6;

16.11, 23-5

Maedoc of Ferns, St 17.123

Maeletius, Joannes 19.82, 88

Mag Dá Cheo (Plain of Two

Mists) 14.163

Mag Mell (Plain of delights)

14.162-4

Mag Mór (Great plain) 14.165

Mag Slécht 18.88, 89, 93

18.236-48

Maggio Drammatico (dramatic

May) 18.223-54

Magic cow in India and Ireland

14.21-49

Magnaura Palace 18.161


242

Magnus, Olaus 16.154

Magnúss Saga Iengri (St

Magnús) 17.124

Magnusson, Magnus 17.61

Mahābhārata 11.3; 12.131, 136;

14.27-30, 33-7, 51-6, 71;

17.170, 177

Mahāparinibbāna Sutta 12.175

Mahavira 15.45

Mahayana Buddhism 14.186,

187, 193

Mair, Victor H. 14.77, 129-37

Maitri Sagar (Karnataka) 12.196

Makarenko, Alexander 18.199

Makašēnu Kuciõi 19.9, 10, 15

Malalas, John 14.86

Malamoud, Charles 15.94;

19.252

Malinowski, Bronislaw 17.149

Manannán mac Lir 18.114-5

Manawydan 14.167; 18.114

Mandalas 12.125-7, 165, 167,

178, 195; 14.186, 190, 194

Mandu (Màndå), Madhya

Pradesh 16.11, 14, 21

Mannhardt, Wilhelm 19.68, 76,

98

Manusmçti (Code of Manu)

12.155; 17.169, 171

Mao Shan 11.150

Maori cosmogonic genealogies

14.212, 213

Māra 19.83, 85, 87

Marduk 12.56

Margaret Tudor 18.183

Mārica 11.6

Marinov, Dimitar 18.193

Marmion, Simon 18.183

Mars 18.63, 113

Martin, Martin 18.114

Martin’s Day, St 18.210

Marxist theory 15.49

Mary Magdalene, St 19.36

Masked Christmas mummers

18.199

Matanga in Brhaddeśī 13.28

Mathematics and cosmology

14.211-26

Matrilineal royal succession

13.127-41; 14.85-91

Mauss, Marcel 14.51 ; 15.63-6,

73; 17.172; 19.170

Ma-wang-tui, Hunan Province

13.3, 4

May Day 16.200, 201; 18.131,

132

May lud 16.184

māyā 15.13, 15

Maya, Mayan iconography

13.115; 20.63-5, 77, 86

Maybury-Lewis, David

H.P.15.85

McCarthy, Daniel 18.80

McClain, Ernest G. 13.25

McClintock, Walter 18.20

McEwan, Elspeth 15.147-65

McGimpsey, Charles 15.130

Mead as ritual libation 18.135

Medb of Connacht 13.60

Medea 15.243-71

Medeina-Žvėrūna (the goddess of

hunting and warriors) 19.22

Medellín Zenil, Alfonso 20.60,

65, 68, 78

Medical and physiological theory

in On Regimen 15.225-33

Medici 14.98

Medicine bundles 18.25, 26

Medicine pipe 18.22-30

Medieval calendar illustrations

18.175

Megarian tradition 13.152, 153


243

Megas, George A. 19.165

Melanippos (Black Horse)

18.114

Melechi in Nepal 18.36

Melikē (Greek Macedonia)

17.201, 210, 211, 218, 228,

240, 241

Meretseger (She Who Loves

Silence) 12.56

Merrey, Karen 16.76

Meru, Mount (World Mountain)

12.116-7, 169; 16.9, 11, 15-25,

28, 30

Mesomerica 20.57-96

Metamorphoses (Ovid) 20.134,

141

Métamorphoses du mythe en

Grèce antique 12.60

Metaphysics 12.39

Meteorologica 12.40

Metoikia 13.151

Mexico, Mexicans 13.111-17

Meyer, Kuno 18.91

Mice Days 18.210

Michaelmas 15.98, 103, 104

Middle Ages 18.173

Midgard 17.39, 102

Midgard-serpent 17.114

Midsummer 16.183-94; 18.213

Mill, John Stuart 15.51, 55

Miniature textiles 20.107-10

Minotaur 13.151, 153

Mintz, Sidney 15.112

Mishna 12.226; 18.144

Mitra-Varuna (Dumézil) 14.22,

75, 86

Mixtec 13.113

Mo-Chúaróc maccu Neth Sémon

(Cronanus sapiens) 15.168

Modena 18.223

Modern Greek Folklore and

Ancient Greek Religion: A

Study of Survivals 19.165

Mohammed 15.45; 18.153, 156

Moirai/Parcae 20.185, 186, 190,

191, 202, 203

Moncha 13.59

Mongolia, Mongols 11.156

Monistic nondualistic position

(Advaita Vedāntin) 15.13

Moon 16.155, 159, 163, 166,

168, 169, 171, 173-210;

18.103-6

Morality and the tribe 15.50-3

Morante López, Rubén B. 20.85

Morning Star (Auseklis) 19.11

Mórrigan, The 13.60, 61; 18.113

Morris, Catrin 19.160, 161

Mortuary cult of Ancient Egypt

12.3-20

Moses 15.45

Mouth of hell (as an animal head)

17.118

Mowinckel, Sigmund 17.149

Mugurēvičs, Ēvalds 19.71

Muller, Friedrich Max 14.223;

17.152

Mummies 12.3-20; 13.4

Murray, Gilbert 17.149

Murray, Margaret 17.151, 157,

160-2; 18.138

Murshilish I, King 13.128-37

Musical cosmology 13.21-47

Muslim, Muslims 12.65-81

Myth and ritual theory 17.141-62

Myth of Er 12.41; 13.26, 31, 32

Myth, Cosmos, and Society

15.168

Mythe et épopée 14.7, 22, 70


244

Mythical Trickster Figures:

Contours, Contexts, and

Criticisms 12.57

Myths of the Celtic Race 19.67

Mytilini 17.202

Nāda 13.29, 39, 40

Nagas of North Eastern India

15.50

Nagy, Gregory 17.156; 20.122,

126, 130

Nahua 20.57-60

Najm al-Dīn Rāzī 12.76

Nandā Devī Fair 16.59

Nandīśvara Dvīpa Temple,

Mount Śatruñjaya 16.25, 29,

32

Nara, marking mid-summer

18.39

Nart Sagas of the Ossetians 14.9,

103, 107, 108

Näsström, Britt-Mari 19.196,

197

National identity and archae-

ology 15.138-41

Native Americans 20.2-120

Natural History (Pliny) 18.105

Navajo 20.125

Near Eastern art 16.94

Nebesky-Wojkowitz, R. 14.184

Nekhbet (vulture goddess) 12.56

Nelson, Janet 14.59

Neo-Confucian philosophy

11.59-65

Neolithic 11.117-23, 126; 18.35

Neo-Pagans 18.121-42

Nepal, Nepalese 12.117-24;

18.38-40

Neptunism 13.79, 80

Nerthus 13.56, 57, 61

New Comparative Mythology,

The 14.3; 15.89, 132, 146

New Year customs 15.97-105;

19.155-79

Newari artists from Nepal

11.162

Newman, John Henry 20.245

Ngari Rinpoche 14.194-201

Nicodemus 18.149, 150

Nicolaus of Jeroschin: Kronike

von Pruzinlant (Chronicle of

the Prussian Land) 19.94, 117

Nietzsche, Friedrich 15.54

Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain,

St 11.159

nirvana and samsara 15.5

Nishi-Waseda, 3-chome, Tokyo

15.115-22

Njörðr 17.11, 13, 42-4, 52, 54,

56

Noah 17.171

Nock, Arthur Darby 19.219, 224,

228

Nondualist, nondualists 15.3, 4,

13-15

Non-realism 18.242

Nordic religious festivals 16.121

Norn (language) 17.69, 72-80

North Indian calendars 16.48

Norway 17.15

Nostraticists 14.132, 133

Novgorod 11.156

Nü Kua 12.56; 13.16, 17

Numa 17.166

Nut 12.6, 13; 16.95

Nutt, Alfred 18.90, 91

Nyingmapa monasteries 14.189

Nyunge (festival of atonement)

18.39

Ó Catháin, Séamas and Eric

Hamp 18.79

Ó Cathasaigh, Tomás 18.166

Ó Duigeannáin, Mícheal 18.87,


245

94, 95, 99

Oak King 18.122

Oðinn 14.75; 16.118-45; 17.13,

22-5, 40-8, 70, 83-97, 105,

110-19, 168, 175; 19.201

Oðinn in Ásgærðum (Faeroese

ballad) 17.107

Oðröre, the poets’ mead 17.105

Odyssey, The 12.25-6; 13.158,

160; 17.234; 20.130-1, 171

Oedipus 14.126, 128

Oedipus Rex 14.58

Oenomaus 14.86, 88

Okan, Medicine Lodge or Sun

Dance, The 18.21, 25-8

Ólafr, St 17.124

Ólafur Tryggvason, King 16.123

Ólafs saga 16.129

Old Norse religion and myth

16.117-49; 17.3-97, 99-112,

113-19; 20.121-51

Old Testament 18.94-8, 132,

143, 155, 223

Olmsted, Garrett S. 19.188

Olsen, Olaf 17.4, 7, 8

Olympos 17.201, 220

On Anatomical Procedures

12.35, 36

On Christian Doctrine 15.208,

209

On Diseases 12.30, 45

On Joints 12.32

On Medicine 12.35

On Regimen 12.30, 37; 15.223-

41

On Sevens 12.37

On the Court Ceremonies of the

Byzantines 12.249

On the Heavens 12.40, 41

On the Nature of Man 12.31

On the Nature of the Universe

14.222, 223

On the Parts of Animals 12.34

öndvegissúlur (high seat pillars)

17.10, 13, 15, 16, 18, 22

Ontological choice 15.3-21

Omaha 20.10

Opposites and mediators 17.37

Orissa 12.117

Orkney 17.14

Orpheus 19.218

Orri Vésteinsson 17.4

Orthodox Church 17.199, 201,

222, 230

Osage 20.2-16

Osiris 12.11-15; 12.4, 10, 12

Otherworld, The, - According to

Descriptions in Medieval

Literature 14.165

Otto, Rudolf 19.44

Ouraniones 12.25

Owein 14.157

Owl Grove 18.130, 131, 135

P’an Ch’ung-kuei 11.75

P’eng bird 13.8, 10

P’eng-lai (paradisial island) 13.5

Padel, Ruth 12, 23

Padma Samhhava 11.160

Pagan, paganism 15.63-75;

18.77, 121-42, 229

“Painter’s Manual” of Dionysius

of Fourna, The 20.217, 235

Palatium 12.251, 252

Palestine 11.26; 12.227, 230, 231

Pallas, Peter Simon 13.77

Pálsson, Hermann 17.61

Pan Ku 12.59

Panagia 17.205, 234; 20.172,

173

Panathenaia festival 13.151-5;

20.155, 159, 160


246

Pañcāyatī Temple, Arrah 16.31

Panchen Lamas 14.197

Pandavas 14.71

Panevėžys 19.56

Pannikar, Raimundo 15.8

Paraśurāma 11.6

Parmenides 15.27

Parry, Milman and Albert Lord

20.121, 122

Pārśvanātha Temple, Lodruva in

Rajasthan 16.20

Patai, Raphael 12.241

Pataňjali 13. 30-6, 40

Patch, H. R. 14.165

Patollo 19.76

Patrick, St 18.63, 78, 87-101,

134, 140

Paul, St 12.223, 232-5; 15.26

Pausanias 13.154, 155, 158;

17.208, 220, 222, 227, 233,

241; 18.63

Pellegrino, Angelo 19.215

Pelops 14. 86, 88

Penelope 20.135, 136

Peperuda procession, The

17.185

Peplos 20.155-82

Periphetes 13.150

Pērkons 19.11, 22, 73, 78, 90

Perkūnas 19.21, 22, 30-3, 38-61

Persephone 17.206

Persians 15.168

Peru 20.97, 104-7, 113

Peshitta 18.143, 147-55

Petrie, Flinders 11.25

Petronius: Satyricon 18.63

Pettazzoni, R.15.28, 44

Phaea, the “sow” 13.150-3

Phaeacians 15.243, 257-9

Phaedrus (Plato) 19.214, 220-2

Pharsalia (Lucan) 14.158

Philibus (Plato) 12.38

Philip II Augustas 14.59

Philip’s Day, St 18.210

Phillips, Ruth 20.4

Philo Judaeus of Alexandria

14.93, 96

Philokalia, The 11.159

Philomel, Philomela 20.140-2,

153

phleps (vein) 12.24

Phoenician alphabet 11.23-30,

34, 36

Phra Malai Sutta 12.169

phrenes (lungs) 12.23

Pia dei Tolomei 18.230

Piacentini, Marco 18.236

Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio

14.98

Piegan or Pikuni (Blackfoot

Alliance) 18.19, 20, 22, 27

Piers the Plowman 16.188

Pikeliai, in the region of

Mažeikiai 19.56

Ping 13.120-4

Pithoigia 17.238

Plath, David 15.112

Plato 12.38-49; 13.25, 26, 38,

39; 14.93, 95, 98, 211; 15.26

Playfair, John 13.71, 74, 81-4

Pledge, H. T. 15.148

Pliny the Elder 16.186; 18.62,

104, 105

Pliny the Younger 19.234-6

Plotinus 13.29

Ploughing to avert drought

17.190

Plutarch 13.149-54

Plutonism 13.79, 85

Plutos 17.236

Poetic Edda 16.119, 139, 148

Poetry 20.121-51, 153, 183


247

Polabia 19.107, 112

Polessje, Polessian 17.179-94

Politics 12.44

Politis, Nikolaos 19.165

polity 15.167, 172-4

poludenik (male spirit) 18.202

poludnica (female spirit) 18.202

Polybus 12.31

Polynesian mythology 14.218-

20, 223

Polzer, Joseph 19.223

Popov, Rachko 18.195

Poseidon 13.143-73

Postmodernism 15.111, 112,

120-2

Potrimppo 19.76

Prakrit texts 16.3

Pre-Columbian Andean cultures

20.97-120

Preiddeu Annwn (The Spoils of

Annwn) 14.162, 163, 172

Presocratic philosophers 12.38,

39

Priests, Warriors, and Cattle

14.24

Primitive Classification 17.164

Primitive Culture 15.113;

17.143, 162

Primordial cosmic egg 19.251,

252

Principles of Geology 13.71

Principles of Knowledge 13.86

Procopius, History of the Wars

17.104

Proerosia 17.207

Prometheus 14.128

Propp, Vladimir 14.213

Prose Edda (Snorri Sturluson)

14.93; 16.119, 120; 17.21

Prose Lancelot 15.209

Protevangelium of James

20.224, 231

Proto-Canaanite 11.26, 27, 30,

47, 53

Protogaea 13.79

Proto-Sinaitic 11.25, 30

Prussia, Prussians 19.21, 73, 75-

8, 88, 90, 93, 95, 97, 100-2,

106, 118

Pseudo-Plutarch 18.62

Pskov 11.156

Ptolemy 12.42

Pueblo art 20.41, 46

Puhvel, Jaan 14.70, 87, 106, 107

Punic child sacrifice 15.144

Punic cities 15.144

Purāõas 14.26-8, 33, 37

Purple Writ of the Golden Gate

11.147, 148

Puruùa 17.165, 167, 169, 174

Puruùas 12.131-3

putrakāmeùñi 11.5

Puùkaravara Dvīpa 16.32

Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed 19.137

Pyanepsia 17.228

Pyramis Texts 12.10

Pythagoras, Pythagoreans 12.41;

13.25-7, 42

qi (primordial energy) 11.140

Qian Miaozhen 11.149

Qoyllur Rit’i pilgrimage 20.99

Quarter Days, Celtic 18.35

Quechua 20.99, 114

Queen Mother of the West 12.56

Queens 13.127-41; 14.85-91

Queste del St Graal 15.203-21

Quetzalcoatl 13.115

Quispe, Bonifacia (Aymara

woman, Bolivia) 20.8

Qur’an 12.67, 69; 12.195;

18.153, 156, 157


248

Raglan, Lord 17.151

Ragnarök 17.44, 46, 93, 114-9

Rain in Indian Life and Lore

17.187

Rain-making and rain-stopping

actions 17.179-251

Rajastan 12.117, 121, 123, 126

Rāksasas (demons) 11.6, 7

Rāma 11.3-19

Ràmàyaõa 11.3-21; 14.33, 35

Ranians 19.113

Ras Shamra 11.33, 36

Rāvaõa 11.3, 6, 7

Rawls, John 15.52, 53

Rayski, Jacek M. 15.114

Rayski, Jerzy 15.114

Reali di Francia 18.230

Recherches sur le symbolisme

funéraire des Romains

19.215, 216

Reciprocity 15.77-90, 91-110

Rees, Alwyn and Brinley 15.79,

83; 18.103

Reformatio gentis Letticae 19.82,

83

Renfrew, Colin 14.122; 19.186

Republic, The 12.41, 47; 13.26,

31

Rethra 19.107, 112-5, 120

Reyes, Fray Antonio de los

13.113

Režģi Cliff 19.13

“Rhapsody on the Owl” 13.12

Rhiannon 11.137

“Rhymed Chronicle” 19.70

Rhind papyrus 12.9

Ribichini, Sergio 15.144

Ricius, Paul 14.97

Ricoyoto 19.77

èg Veda 12.131, 134-8, 171;

13.36; 14.22, 24, 26, 29, 32,

33; 19.181, 182, 191, 252-8

Riga 19.18, 61, 71, 72, 91, 92,

120

Right hand/left hand duality

14.61-3

Ritual, theories of 17.141-62

Ritual drama 18.130

Ritual drowning 17.106

Ritual year 15.91-110; 16.43-88,

117-206; 17.163-78; 18.1-254

Rituals at wells and rivers 17.

182

Rituels indo-européens à Rome

14.22

Robb, John 14.122

Robertson Smith, William

17.141

Robin Hood 16.197, 198, 200,

203

rock carvings 19.3

Rokiškis District, Lithuania 19.4

Rollestone, T. W. 19.67

Roman funerary art 19.213-49

Romance of Alexander 12.245

Rome, Roman, Romans 17.166,

167, 177; 18.108

Romulus and Remus 14.75;

17.166, 167, 168, 174, 176;

18.61, 63, 67, 70, 72

Romuva 19.60, 93-127

Rose symbolism in Baltic

mythology 19.21-42

Ross, John 11.66

Rousseau, Jean Jacques 15.46

Royal succession in Heroic

Greece 14.85-91

çtá (precise alignment) 19.252

Rūmī 12.66, 77, 78

Rush mats 20.2-16


249

Russian icons 11.155-72

Russian Orthodoxy 11.155-60

Russian, Russians 18.43, 194,

195, 198, 202, 204, 207-13,

217-22

Sacred marriage between Heaven

and Earth 17.233

Sacred Theory of the Earth 13.77

Sacrifice at Samain 18.87-101

Sacrifices at Uppsala: Christian

Polemic, The 17.99

Sacrificial places of Varklet-

Bodya, The 18.46

Saga ins helga Ólofs konung

17.100

Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de

13.116; 20.57-60

Sainreth mac Imbaith (Nature or

Characteristic of the Sea)

18.114

Salazar, Cervantes de 13.113

Saldus 19.2, 4-15

Salt River Goddess 12.57

Saltair na Rann 18.109

Samdzimari (Georgian deity)

14.11-15

Samhain/Samain or Hallowe’en

14.170; 16.127, 161, 170;

18.57, 63, 77, 80, 87-101, 106,

110-16, 121, 122, 125-7, 131,

166

Sámi shamanic practices 17.69

Samogitians 19.116

samsaric states of woe 15.5

Samuel, Geoffrey 14.181, 182,

185, 200-3

San dong jing (Scripture of the

Three Grottos) 11.149

Sanas Cormaic 18.59

Sangren, Steven P. 15.112

Sanskrit 14.103-17

Santa Clara, Pedro Gutiérrez de

13.121

Sárasvant 19.255

Sarasvatī, Goddess 13.40, 41;

19.253-5

Śārngadeva 13.28

Satan 12.214, 217

Saulė (Baltic goddess) 19.21-2

Saussure, Ferdinand de 14.4, 5

Saxo Grammaticus 16.134;

17.84, 88, 97, 107, 111; 19.113

Saywite Monolith (Peru) 20.99

Scalovinans 19.116

Scandinavia, Scandinavian

16.117-49, 151, 156; 17.4-9,

14-19, 36, 39, 59, 66, 70, 75,

76, 83, 90, 95, 111-38; 19.103

Scáthach 18.127

Schauenburg, Konrad 19.222,

229-34, 238

Schleicher, August 14.105

Schlick, Mary Dodds 20.5

Schmidt, Johannes 14.104

Scholes, Robert 14.214

Schrempp, Gregory 13.119

Science Since 1500 15.148

Scot, Reginald: The Discoverie of

Witchcraft 17.75

Scottish Enlightenment, The

13.74

Scowcroft, Mark 14.24

Scripta Leonis, Rufini et Angeli

sociorum S.Francisci 17.124

Scripture of the Yellow Court

11.149

Sea 18.1112-5

Sebastian Painadath 12.195

“Second Battle of Mag Tuired,

The” 18.116

Seeman, Melvin 15.49

Sejong, King 11.57, 65


250

Sekinin-sōdai (chief shrine elder)

15.118, 119

Seler, Eduard 20.75

Semigallians 19.13

Semitic, Semites 11.23-31, 33-

54; 18.97, 143, 145-55

Seneca: On the brevity of life

15.68

Seneca: On the tranquillity of the

soul 15.68

Serbs, Serbia, Serbian 17.179-

83, 185, 188, 192, 185;

18.194, 195, 198-201, 204

Serglige Con Culainn 18.63

Sermo Lupi ad Anglos 17.71

Serna, Jacinto de la 13.113

Servius 17.166

Servius et la Fortune 14.22, 36

Settling of the Manor of Tara,

The 18.107

Shah Nama 14.108

Shāhnāma (Persian Epic of Kings

– Ferdowsi) 14.108; 17.167,

175, 177

Shakespeare, William 13.21

Shakyamuni 11.162

Shamans 14.181-3; 19.137, 138

Shang Dynasty 13.120, 125

Shangqing Housheng daojun lieji

(Annals of Lord of the Dao,

the Later Sage) 11.144, 147

Shannon Pot, The 18.129

Shantarakshita 11.160

Shantivanam Ashram 12.194

Shear, Jonathan 13.31-8

Shechem 11.26

Shen Xi 11.143

Shetland 17.14

Shils, Edward 12.247; 18.159

Shimo Totsuka 15.119

shōgatsu (beginning of year,

Japan) 18.8, 9

Shrovetide 18.213

Shu 12.13

shulikuny (winter evil spirits)

18.199

Shumka, Leslie J. 19.237

Šiaulėnai 19.57

Siberian Folk Calendar, The

18.199

Siccar Point 13.69, 82-4

Síd/síth 14.159-61, 165

Sidhe (the fairy people) 18.131

Sigdrífomál 20.126, 127

Sigmundr 17.83, 85, 87, 88, 90,

92, 97

Sikhs, Sikhism 12.115-30

Siksika or Blackfoot 18.19

Simhamukha 11.7

Sims-Williams, Patrick 14.157,

158, 161, 165

Sinaitic and Curetonian codexes

18.143

Sinann (goddess) 18.129

Sinclair, George: Satan’s

Invisible World Discovered

15.147

Síndu 19.256

Singer of Tales, The 14.224

Sinhalese 12.168, 181, 183

Sinis the Pinebender 13.150

Sinitic languages 14.129-40

Sinlán of Bangor 15.168

Sioux 20.17-32

Sisupala 19.202

Sītā 11.3, 5-7, 13-9

Śiva 13.28

Skaði 16.120; 17.42

Skáldskaparmál 17.29, 40, 44,

52, 53

Skallagrímssonar 16.129

Skinner, Alanson 20.4


251

Skiron 13.150-3

Slavs, Slavonic 17.179, 182-8,

192-4; 18.193-222, 255;

20.211-60

Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking

in the Biblical Tradition

12.55

Smiling figurines in Mexico

20.57-96

Smith, Adam 13.86

snakes 12.119-20; 19.58, 59

Snell, Bruno 12.23

Snorri Sturluson 16.119, 120,

123-5, 128-30, 133, 135, 139-

42, 144, 148, 151, 158; 17.8,

12, 15, 21, 22, 28, 35, 58, 97,

100, 107, 111, 114, 128, 168;

19.111

Social Contract, Rousseau 15.46

Söderblom, Nathan 19.44

Solar 16.48-9, 159, 161, 163,

166-8, 173, 178, 185, 186, 210;

18.160; 19.13

Solheim, Svale 15.98

Solstices 18.35-8, 121

sóma 12.23; 19. 253-8

Sophia 11.156

Sophocles 17.153

Sopron (Ödenburg) 13.49-68

Soranus 12.41

Soteriological self-determination

15.5, 6, 9, 13, 20

Soul’s journey to Paradise 13.3-

20

Sounion (Poseidon) 13.143-7,

155-7

Soustelle, Jacques 20.58, 59, 84

South Arabian alphabet 11.35,

42, 43, 48, 51

South Asian water architecture

12.115-30

South Caucasian ideology 14.9-

20

Southeast Asian architecture

12.163-92

Speratus 19.80

Spinning 20.185-209, 211-60

Spirit possession 19.138-49

Spring Equinox 18.121

Spring thunder, first 19.43-5, 56,

57, 59

Sri Lanka 12.117, 124, 169

Ssu-ma Ch’ien 12.59, 60

St Clair of the Isles, or, the

outlaw of Barra 18.229

St Victor, Richard of 15.4

starci 18.209

Starkaðr 17.83, 85-7, 92, 104;

19.202

State in Ancient Greece 12.44-9

Stations of the Sun, The 19.157

Stender, Gotthard Friedrich 19.

86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 100, 125

Stephen’s Day, St 15.98-100,

105

Stimmen der Völker 19.66

Stoeltje, Beverly J. 18.123

Stoics, Stoicism 12.39, 40, 41;

15.65-71

Storytelling icons 20.241-4

Structural Study of Myth, The

14.213, 215-8, 223

stūpas 12.164, 165, 169, 181,

183

Su jing (Scripture of simplicity)

11.145

Su ling jing (Scripture of imma-

culate transcendence) 11.141

Subāhu 11.6

Sudovians 19.116

Suetonius 19.225, 235

Sufism 12.65-7, 70, 75


252

Sugrīva 11.3, 6, 7, 15

Sui dynasty 11.139

Sui shu 11.139-42, 149

Sumerian, Sumerians 11.28, 29

Sumero-Akkadian 11.28, 48

Sun goddess 19.11, 196-200

Sun Tree 19.13, 14, 15

Sun’s Cart, The 19.11

Sundarakāõda 11.5

Sunyata 15.7

Suppiluliuma I, King 13.129

Śūrpaõkhā 11.6

Sutra of the Lion’s Roar of a

Universal Monarch, The

15.180

Svanhildr 19.196

Svarna Nagarã Hall, Ajmer,

Rajasthan 16.13

Swayambhunath 12.116, 117

Sweden 19.77, 107, 110, 111,

124, 132

Syennesis 12.31

Synagogue 12.227-9

Syria, Syriac 18.143-58

Systeme de la nature 13.78

Szwaybrotto 19.77

Ta-aroa (Polynesian god)

14.219, 220

tabī’a 12.77

Tacitus 13.56, 57, 61; 17.4, 5,

26, 35, 36, 102, 106, 107, 112;

19.70

Tahmuras 17.167

Tai, Marquis of 13.4, 9

Táin Bó Cuailgne 13.60; 14.36;

18.64, 80, 109

Taiping jing (Scripture of the

great peace) 11.145, 148

Tajfel, Henri 12.223, 224

Taketori Monogatari 11.76

Tamil Nadu 12.116, 117, 125

tanabata, the Star Festival 18.9

Tanjur 12.168

Tantra, Tantric 11.160-164;

14.185-94

Tao Hongjing 11.142, 143, 150

Tao Zhenbai 11.147

Taoist (Daoist) scriptures

11.139-53; 12.56, 65, 66; 13.3

Tārakā 11.6, 10, 13

Tarquin 17.166-8

Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata

18.229

Tawananna, Queen 13.127-41

Tefnut 12.13

Teiresias 14.126, 128

Telepinush 13.130, 133, 136-8

Temple of Solomon 12.242

Tenochtitlan 13.111, 112

Tezcatlipoca 13.112

Thailand 12.168, 179

Thargelia 17.228

Theagenes of Rhegion 15.26

Theissen, Gerd 12.234

Theistic position on ultimate

reality 15.4, 14-6

Theogamia 17.233

Theogony (Hesiod) 12.23-7;

13.162; 20.185

Theory of the Earth, with Proofs

and Illustrations 13.71, 84

Theosis 11.158

Theseus 13.145-55; 17.235

Thesmophoria festival 17.206,

233; 20.156

Þíðranda þáttur og Þorhalls

16.131

Thietmar of Merseburg, Bishop

16.122; 19.110

Things Hidden Since the

Foundation of the World

14.216, 217


253

Þorbjörg 17.59

Þorgerður 16.120

Þorkell 17.60

Þórr 17.15, 16, 40, 46-52, 55, 57,

83-9, 94

Thoth 12.11

Thrace 17.200

Three presuppositions of the

holographic model for a moral

cosmos 15.12, 13

Three Worlds According to King

Ruang 12.169

Threefold death, The 17.109

Throne of Solomon 18.161

Þrymskviða 17.46

Thucydides 12.43; 13.149

thumos (spirit) 12.23

Thunder 18.19-33, 43-61; 19.11,

32, 33, 43-61, 73, 78, 87, 90

Tiamat 12.56

Tibet, Tibetan 11.155-72;

12.168, 183, 14.179-209

Tie-dying 20.33-56

Tigernmas, son of Fallach 18.88-

92, 98

Timaeus 12.39, 40, 48; 13.38;

14.95

Time 12.250-1; 14.170, 171;

17.163; 18.144

Ting 13.120-5

Tinos 17.201

Tír na mBan (Land of women)

14.162, 164

Tír na mBeo (Land of the living)

14.162, 165

Tír na nÓg (Land of youth)

14.162-5

Tīrthaïkaras 16.5

Titanomachy 13.161

Tlaloc (Nahuatl storm god)

13.113, 114; 20.58

Tobacco 18.21, 31

Tochmarc Emire (The Wooing of

Emer) 14.53; 18.64, 97, 115

Togail Bruidne Da Derga

(Destruction of Da Derga’s

Hostel) 14.160, 168; 15.188

Tokyo 18.3

Tolstoy, N. I. 18.207

Toltecs 20.37, 38

Torres Gúzman, Manuel 20.60

Tortoise 12.171-2

Tosco-Emilian Apennine

mountains 18.223

Toshihiko Izutsu 12.65

toshikoshi (New Year) 18.8, 10,

11, 17

Townshend, Turnip 13.74

Toynbee, Jocelyn 19.217, 218,

228

Toys found in Roman child

burials 19.236-8

Trance 19.137-53

Tree symbolism 13.36-7, 111-7;

14.93-101

Très Riches Heures of John,

Duke of Berry 18.185

Trichtebecherkultur (Beaker

Cuture) 11.117

Tristano e Isotta 18.229

Tromdámh Guaire 14.30

Trows 16.154

Troyes 16.187, 192, 207

True and false myths 15.23

True Relation of An Apparition

on December 21st 1695, A

15.159, 164

Truth and the meaning of being

human and cultural 15.29-32

Tso chuan (Tso’s Commentary)

14.135

Tsongkhapa 14.192, 193


254

Tuatha Dé Danann 18.93, 114,

115; 19.138

Tuite, Kevin 14.106, 122, 128

Tullus 17.166

Tupa Tsezhu (festival of blessing)

18.39

Turcan, Robert 19.220, 223, 228,

230, 231

Turcan-Deléani, Marie 19.220,

221

Turrini, Tranquillo 18.245

Turtles 13.8

Tvaùñç 14.32

Twelve days, The 15.98; 16.159-

82; 18.199, 209

Twine bags 20.4-6

Twins 19.181-211

Tyler, Stephen A. 15.111, 112

Tylor, E. B. 17.143

Tylor, Edward 15.113

Týr 17.114, 117

udjat 12.11

Udmurt, Udmurts 18.43-55

Uffington Castle 11.132

Uffington White Horse 11.132-7

Ugarit, Ugaritic 11. 23, 25, 27,

33-53

Uguns Māte (goddess) 19.21

Ulfljótslög 17.9, 11

Ultán’s Hymn 18.82

Umon’hon’ti (Venerable Man:

Omaha myth) 20.11

Upanişads 12.155, 171, 174,

195; 14.94; 19.251

Uppsala 17.22, 99-112

Uranus 13.123, 125; 17.236

Urðar lokkor of Grógaldr 17.69

Urim and Tummim 11.51, 52

Ushas 19.196

Ūsiõš, the god of light 19.11

Uspensky, B. A. 20.241

Ussher, James 13.76

Utgard 17.39

Utnapishtim 17.171

Utrecht Psalter 18.186

Utriusque Cosmi Maioris 13.21

Uttar Pradesh 12.120-123, 157

Vafþrúðnismál 17.3

Valchata Bogoroditsa 18.209

Vālin 11.6

Valkyries 16.130; 17.59, 71

van Gennep, Arnold 17.148

Vānaras (monkeys) 11.3-10, 13

Vanir 17.42-54

varðlokkur 17.59, 61, 64, 65, 68,

69, 72-6

Varklet-Bodya, Tatarstan 18.43-

55

Vasubandhu of Yogācāra

Buddhism 15.4

Vecauces Lozberģi 19.13

Vedas 12.56, 155; 13.28, 38;

14.25, 94; 17.165, 166, 175

Vedic caturmasya 16.151

Vedic gods 15.95

Vedic India 15.95

Vedic literature 19.251

Vedic year 16.151

Vėlius, Norbertas 19.59

Velnala (Devil’s Cave) 19.17

Venclová, Natalie 19.139

Veracruz 20.59, 60

Veraldur 17.107, 108

Verfassungs-patriotismus 15.56

Veyne, Paul 19.240

Via Crucis 18.238

Vibhīùāna 11.5-7

Víðarr 17.115-8

Vidvdàt 17.170

Víga-Glúms saga 16.129

Vikar, King 17.104

Violence and the Sacred 17.153


255

Virgil’s Eclogues 18.182

Virgin Mary 12.206, 207, 213,

214; 18.77-85, 174, 227;

19.32; 20.211-60

Virtaka Rock 19.4, 5, 11, 17

Viśistādvaita Vedānta 15.3

Viùõu 11.3, 5, 15, 17; 12.116,

120, 133, 148-50, 156; 17.169-

76

Viśrāmitra 11.6

Visual poetry 20.133, 134

Visual storytelling 11.3-21

Visuddhi Magga (Path of

Purification) 12.164, 169,

170, 175

Viśvarūpa (the form of the

universe) 12.131-62

Vitelli, Karen 15.129

Vladimir, Emperor of Russia

11.155

Vodou (Voodoo), Haitian

19.140-3

Völsunga saga 17.22, 85;

20.129, 130, 138

Völuspá 17.3

vös’as’ (priest) 18.44

Vout, Caroline 19.223

Vçtra 14.32 19.254

Wadjet (cobra goddess) 12.56

Wælcyrie 17.70

Walker, Susan 19.228

Wang Daolian 11.149

Wang Lie 11.145, 146

Wang Mang 12.33

Ward, Donald 14.69; 17.109;

19.189, 201

Warlocks 17.59, 61

Warner, Reverend Thomas

15.147-65

Wasting Sickness of Cú Chulainn,

The 13.60

Water as origin of creation

12.116-8

Water gourds 20.76-82

Wa-Xo’Be (hawk) 20.2-16

Weaving 20.121-82

Weisinger, Herbert 17.151

Wells May Game 16.184

Well-Temples as axes mundi

12.126-7

Welsh Calennig 19.155-79

Welsh Folk Customs 19.157

Wen-Amos papyrus 11.24

Werewolves 18.62, 71, 74

Werner, Abraham Gottlob 13.79

West Semitic scripts 11.50, 51

Weston, Jessie 17.151

White horses/swans 19.197, 199

White Week 17.220, 222, 224,

226, 245

Whorf, B. L. 17.164

Wicca 18.121

Wiccan 18.127, 138

Wicker Man 18.136

Widewuto 19.77

Wiederlegunge der Abgötterey

19.82

Wikander, Stig 14.106; 17.168

Wilber, Ken 13.42, 43

Wilke 13.56

Wind 18.107-12

Winter and summer: openings of

18.209, 215

Winter, Duke 16.154

Winyan Nunpa (Double Woman)

design of Sioux beadworkers

20.20, 21, 27

Wissler, Clark 18.20

Witchcraft 15.147-65; 18.121

Witchcraft Act of 1563 15.157,

158

Wittgenstein, Ludwig 15.45


256

Wodrow, Robert 15.148, 149

Wolf of Gubbio, The 17.124

Wolf, wolves 17.68, 94, 113-31;

18.32, 57-76, 209, 210

Wolves, metamorphosis into

18.62

Wolves’ Days 18.209

Works and Days 12.26-8

World Monochord, The 13.21,

22

World Trees 19.14

Wren 15.99

Wu 13.120-124

Wurschayto or Borsskayto 19.77

Wyclif, John 16.189

Xenophanes 15.28

Xenophon of Ephesus 12.38;

17.104

Xevsur myth of Northeast

Georgians 14.130

Xevsureti, Pshavi 14.12-6

Xi Kang 11.146

Xiao jing (Scripture of Filial

Piety) 11.150

Xicalcoliuhqui (Nahuatl step fret

motif) 20.57, 60-8, 73-7

Xochiquetzal (Nahuatl goddess)

20.36, 37

Xocotl Huetzi festival 13.114

Yamnaya culture 14.123, 124

Yang Xi 11.142, 143, 150

Yaqaru seal 11.48

Yates, Frances 14.97

Yatvingians 19.116

Yggdrasil 14.93; 17.25, 102

Yggdrasil, World Ash 17.39

Yi the Archer 13.15, 120, 122-5

Yima 17.171

Yin/Yang 12.65-81, 194, 195;

13.15-8, 121, 123; 14.73, 74,

77, 78, 134, 135

Ymir 17.21, 44, 45, 54

Ynglinga saga 17.8, 42, 87, 168

Ynglingatal 16.135

Yngvar 17.168

Yoga Sūtras 13.30, 31, 33, 38

Yogācāra Buddhism 15.3, 4

Yoga-Sûtras of Patañjali 15.69

Yonsan, King 11.66

Yoruba spirit possession 19.142,

145

Yü Ch’ing 13.8, 13

Yu Ch’ui 12.53, 61

Yuanshi Tianzun (Heavenly

Venerate) 11.139, 140

Yuddhakāõda 11.5, 8, 11, 13

Yule 15.155; 16.124-6, 151-8,

196, 197

Zaþþàk 17.167

Zar possession cult 19.143

Zelenin, D. K. 17.182

Zeno 12.40

Zeno’s paradox 14.214, 216, 223

Zeus 13.158, 161; 17.158, 204,

206, 225-8, 233, 236, 237,

243, 246

Zhen gao (Declarations of the

perfected) 11.142

Zidantash 13.132, 133, 136

Zilupe Cemetery 19.9

zodiacal signs 12.42; 18.175

zomo 18.36

Zōodochos Pēgē 17.224

Zoroastrian Iran 14.71-3, 108

Zoroastrianism 15.45; 17.170

Zu Xiashi 11.144

Zuidema, R. Tom 13.120-3

Zuñi 17.164, 166, 170, 173

Zuo Ci 11.145

Zvārdes Grīnerti 19.13

Zvelebil, Marek 14.122

REVIEW INDEX, Volumes 11-20

Aitchison, N. B. Armagh and the Royal Centres in Early Medieval Ireland:

Monuments, Cosmology and the Past. Glasgow and Woodbridge: Cruithne

Press and Boydell and Brewer, 1994. ISBN 1-873448-02-3. 356 pp.

Emily Lyle 12.1

Alchemy Web Site on CD-Rom.

Koert Lynde 13.2

Andrén, Jennbert and Raudvere, eds. Ordning mot kaos. Studier av nordisk

förkristen kosmologi. Vägar till Midgård 4. Lund: Nordic Academic Press,

2004. ISBN 91-89116-63-1. 430 pp.

Karen Bek-Pedersen 19.1

Arnold, Bettina and D. Blair Gibson, eds. Celtic Chifdom, Celtic State: The

Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-46469-2. xii, 159 pp.

D. W. Harding 12.1

Baldick, Julian. Homer and the Indo-Europeans: Comparing Mythologies.

London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 1994. ISBN 0-85043-8331-5. vi, 182 pp.

John Brockington 13.1

Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. The Mummies of Ürümchi. London: Macmillan,

1999. ISBN 0-333-73024-0. 240 pp.

Hilda Ellis Davidson 14.1

Barraud, Cécile, Daniel de Coppet, André Iteanu and Raymond Jamous. Of

Relations and the Dead. Four Societies Viewed from the Angle of their

Exchanges. Oxford: Berg, 1994. ISBN 0-85496-953-5 (pbk). viii, 131 pp.

Charles Jedrej 12.1

Bauer, Brian S. The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque

System. Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1998. ISBN 0-292-70865-3.

249 pp.

Denise Y. Arnold 14.2

Berggren, Arvidsson and Hållans, eds. Minne och myt. Konsten at skapa det

förflutna. Vägar till Midgård 5. Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2004. ISBN

91-89116-75-5. 220 pp.



258

Billington, Sandra. Midsummer: A Cultural Sub-Text from Chrétien de

Troyes to Jean Michel. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2000. ISBN 2-503-

51084-1. 249 pp.

Emily Lyle 16.2

Billington, Sandra and Miranda Green, eds. The Concept of the Goddess.

London and New York: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-144213. xiv, 192 pp.

Fiona M. MacDonald 14.1

Briggs, Robin. Witches and Neighbours. London: Harper and Collins, 1996.

ISBN 0-00-686209-8 (pbk). 457 pp.

Mark Hanford 14.2

Brinkley, Sue. Biological Clocks: Your Owner’s Manual. Amsterdam:

Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997. ISBN 90-5702-534-5. 220 pp.

Emily Lyle 13.2

Burckhardt, Titus. Chartres and the Birth of the Cathedral. First English

edn. Ipswich: Golgonooza Press, 1995. ISBN 0-903880-66 (pbk). 136 pp.

Rosemary Wright 14.2

Burns, John T. Cycles in Humans and Nature: An Annotated Bibliography.

Metuchen, N.J. and Pasadena, CA: Scarecrow Press and Salem Press, 1994.

ISBN 0-81082831-6. 288pp.

Emily Lyle 11.2

Burns, John T. Cosmic Influences on Humans, Animals and Plants: An

Annotated Bibliography. Lanham, Md, and London: Scarecrow Press, and

Pasadena, CA, and Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Salem Press, 1997. Magill

bibliographies. ISBN 0-8108-3313-1. 205 pp.

Emily Lyle 13.2

Cahill, Suzanne E. Transcendence and Divine Passion: The Queen Mother

of the West in Medieval China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993.

ISBN 0-8047-2112-2. xxii, 303 pp.

W. T. Dolby 11.1

Campion, Nicholas. The Great Year: Astrology, Millenarianism and History

in the Western Tradition. London: Penguin-Arkana, 1994. ISBN 0-14-01-

9296-4 (pbk). xi, 696 pp.

Prudence Jones 12.1

Review Index

259

Carey, John. A Single Ray of the Sun. Religious Speculations in Early

Ireland. Andover and Aberystwyth: Celtic Studies Publications Inc. III,

1999. ISBN 1-891271-03-2 (pbk). 123 pp.

Rosemary Wright 15

Carsten, Janet and Stephen Hugh-Jones, eds. About the House: Lévi-Strauss

and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-

47421-3; 0-521-47953-3 (pbk). xiv, 300 pp.

Philip Thomas 11.2

Cherry, John, ed. Mythical Beasts. London: British Museum Press, 1995.

ISBN 0-7141-1737-4. 192 pp.

Sonia Greger 11.2

Cohn, Norman. Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots

of Apocalyptic Faith. Newhaven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995. ISBN

0-300-05598-6; 0-300-06551-5 (pbk). 271 pp.

Prudence Jones 13.1

Colarusso, John. Nart Sagas from the Caucasus. Princeton and Oxford:

Princeton University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-691-02647-5. 552 pp.


de Coppet, Daniel, and André Iteanu, eds. Cosmos and Society in Oceania:

Explorations in Anthropology. Oxford and Washington, DC: Berg, 1995.

ISBN 1-859-73042-6. vi, 338 pp.

Garry Trompf 13.2

Cornelius, Geoffrey. The Moment of Astrology: Origins in Divination.

London: Penguin-Arkana, 1995. ISBN 0-140-19369-3. 393 pp.

C. Annabella Kiston 12.1

Coulmas, Florian. The Writing Systems of the World. Oxford and

Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1989 (pbk 1991). ISBN 0-631-16513-4; 0-

631-18028-1 (pbk). 302 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Dames, Michael. Merlin and Wales, a Magician’s Landscape. London:

Thames and Hudson, 2002. ISBN 0-500-51079-2. 192 pp.

Geo Athena Trevarthen 18

Danesi, Marcel. Vico, Metaphor and the Origin of Language. Bloomington

and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-253-31607-3. 190

pp.

Erica McAteer 11.1


260

Darrah, John. Paganism in Arthurian Romance. Woodbridge: The Boydell

Press, 1994. ISBN 0-85991-426-7. 304 pp.

Yolande de Pontfarci 14.1

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London and New

York: Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0-415-13611-3. viii, 211 pp.

Britt-Mari Näsström 16.1

Davies, Jon. Death, Burial and Rebirth in the Religions of Antiquity.

London: Routledge Religion in the First Christian Centuries series, 1999.

ISBN 0-415-12991-5. 246 pp.

Sinclair Bell 16.1

Devyatkina, Tatyana. Mordvinian Mythology. Studia Mythologica Slavica

Supplementa No. 1. Ljubljana: ZRC Publishing, 2004. ISBN 961-6500-42-2.

174 pp.

Emily Lyle 19.1

Dubuisson, Daniel. Mythologies du XXe siècle (Dumézil, Lévi-Strauss,

Eliade). Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1993. ISBN 2-85939-451-6.

348 pp.

Dean A. Miller 14.1

Evans, Kirsti. Epic Narratives in the Hoysa¯a Temples: The Ràmàyaõa,

Mahàbhàrata and Bhàgavata Puràõa in Ha¯ebãd, Belår and Amçtapura.

Studies in the History of Religions, Numen Book Series, 74. Leiden: Brill,

1997. ISBN 90-04-10575-1. xvi, 286 pp.


Fauré, Bernard. Visions of Power: Imagining Medieval Japanese Buddhism.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-691-03758-2. 336 pp.

T. Nelson 13. 2

Feinman, Gary M. and Joyce Marcus, eds. Archaic States. Santa Fe, NM:

School of American Research Press, 1998. ISBN 0-933452-98-5 (cloth); 0-

933452-99-3 (paper). xiv, 427 pp.

Emily Lyle 16.2

Finnegan, Ruth and Margaret Orbell, eds. South Pacific Oral Traditions.


20958-7 (pbk). 259 pp.

John Shaw 14.2

Review Index

261

Flood, Gavin D. Body and Cosmology in Kashmir Śaivism. San Francisco:

Mellen Research Press, 1993. ISBN 0-7734-9974-1. xx, 441pp.


Foley, John Miles. The Singer of Tales in Performance. Bloomington and

Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-253-20931-5 (pbk).

235 pp.

John Shaw 14.2

Forman, Werner and Stephen Quirke. Hireoglyphs and the Afterlife in

Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum Press, 1996. ISBN 0-7141-0995-9.

192 pp.

Lana Troy 12.2

Fraser, J. T. and M. P. Soulsby, eds. Dimensions of Time and Life. (The

Study of Time VIII). Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press,

1996. ISBN 0-8236-1295-3. xvi, 298 pp.

Tim Cloudsley 13.1

Gantz, Timothy. Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic

Sources. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.

ISBN 0-8018-4410-X, 912 pp. ISBN 0-8018-536-05 and 0-8018-536-21, 2

vols (pbk).

Gordon Howie 13.1

Geary, Patrick J. Phantoms of Remembrance: Memory and Oblivion at the End

of the First Millennium. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994.

ISBN 0-691-03422-2; ISBN 0-691-02603-3 (pbk). xiv, 248 pp.

Emily Lyle 14.2

Geneva, Ann. Astrology and the Seventeenth Century Mind: William Lilly

and the Language of the Stars. Manchester: Manchester University Press,

1995. ISBN 0-7190-4154-6. xxi, 298 pp.

C. Annabella Kiston 12.1

Goodman, Hananya, ed. Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative

Studies in Judaism and Hinduism. Albany: State University of New York

Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7914-1715-8; 0-7914-1716-6 (pbk). xiii, 344pp.


Grim, John A., ed. Indigenous Traditions and Ecology: The Interbeing of

Cosmology and Community. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,

2001. ISBN 0-945454-28-7. lxiii; 754 pp.

Gordon Gray 17.1


262

Hall, Robert. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and

Ritual. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997. ISBN: 0-262-06602-2.

xiv, 222 pp.

Graham Harvey 14.2

Halms, Robert. Games Against Nature: An Eco-Cultural History of the Nunu of

Equatorial Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, first paperback

edition 1999. ISBN 0-521-65535-8 (pbk). 276 pp.

Emily Lyle 16.1

Harris, John F. and Stephen K. Mears. Understanding Maya Inscriptions: A

Hieroglyphic Handbook. Philadelphia: The University Museum of

Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 1992. ISBN 0-

924171-14-6. 159 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Harris, John F. New and Recent Maya Hieroglyph Readings: A Supplement

to Understanding Maya Inscriptions. Philadelphia: The University Museum

of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 1993. ISBN

0-924171-25-1. 28 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Helms, Mary W. Access to Origins: Affines, Ancestors and Aristocrats.

Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998. ISBN 0-292-73119-1. 258pp.

Roy Willis 15

Helms, Mary W. Craft and the Kingly Ideal. Art, Trade and Power. Austin,

TX: University of Texas Press, 1993. ISBN 0-292-73078-0 (pbk). 287 pp.

Dean A. Miller 16.2

Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning.

Edinburgh and New York: Edinburgh University Press and Columbia

University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-231-10132-5. xxvi, 645pp.

Dean Miller 11.2

Horowitz, Maryanne Cline. Seeds of Virtue and Knowledge. Princeton, N.J.

and Chichester, West Sussex: Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0691-

04463-5. 376 pp.

Rebekah Gronowsky 14.1

Huang, Chun-chieh and Erik Zürcher, eds. Time and Space in Chinese

Culture. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995. ISSN 0169-9563; ISBN 90-04-10287-6

(hbk). vi, 402 pp.

William Dolby 14.2

Review Index

263

Hunt, Harry T. On the Nature of Consciousness: Cognitive, Phenomeno-

logical, and Transpersonal Perspectives. New Haven and London: Yale

University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-300-06230-3. xvi, 358pp.

Ronald Lemmen 11.2

Jennbert, Andrén and Raudvere, eds. Plats och praxis. Studier av nordisk

förkristen ritual. Vägar till Midgård 2. Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2002.

ISBN 91-89116-24-0. 342 pp.


Johnston, A. F. and W. Hüsken, ed. English Parish Drama: ‘Ludus’

Medieval and Early Renaissance Theatre and Drama, vol. 1. Amsterdam

and Atlanta: Rodopi, 1996. ISBN 9-042-00060-0. 157 pp.

Sandra Billington 14.2

Kelley, Klara Bonsack and Harris Francis. Navajo Sacred Places.


33116-1; 0-253-20893-9 (pbk). vii, 260 pp.

Rik Pinxten 11.2

Klaniczay, Gábor and Éva Pócs, eds. Communicating with the Spirits.

Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2005. ISBN

963-7326-13-8. 295 pp.

Emily Lyle 19.2

Kuramochi, Yosuke and Anna-Britta Hellbom, eds. Ideologia, cosmovisión y

etnicidad a través del pensamiento indígena en las Américas. Colección

Biblioteca Abya-Yala No. 44, 1997. ISBN 9978-04-268-7. 312 pp.

Emily Lyle 13.2

Leavy, Barbara Fass. In Search of the Swan Maiden: A Narrative on Foklore

and Gender. New York and London: New York University Press, 1994.

ISBN 0-8147-5068-0. 374 pp.

Barbara McDermitt 11.1

Lestienne, Rémy (tr. E. C. Neher). The Children of Time: Causality,

Entropy, Becoming. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1995. ISBN 0-

252-06427-5. xiii, 220 pp.

Heather Morland Dyke 12.1

Loewe, Michael. Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-521-45466-2. xx,

353 pp.

W. T. Dolby 11.1


264

Lopez, Donald S. Jr. Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sutra.

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-691-02732-3. xii,

260 pp.

Jeffrey F. Meyer 14.2

Lyle, Emily. Archaic Cosmos: Polarity, Space and Time. Edinburgh:

Polygon, 1990. ISBN 0-7486-6047-X (pbk). x, 193 pp.

William Sayers 12.1

Lynn, C. J., ed. Excavations at Navan Fort 1961-71. Department of the

Environment for Northern Ireland Monographs No 3, 1997. Belfast: The

Stationery Office. ISBN 0-337-08361-9. xvi, 244 pp.

D. W. Harding 14.2

Lyons, Deborah. Gender and Immortality: Heroines in Ancient Greek Myth

and Cult. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-691-01100-1.

xvii, 269 pp.

Glenys Davies 13.2

Macey, Samuel L., ed. Encyclopedia of Time. New York and London:

Garland, 1994. ISBN 0-8153-0615-6. xxvi, 699 pp.

Murray MacBeath 11.1

Marcus, Joyce. Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and

History in Four Ancient Civilizations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University

Press, 1992. ISBN 0-691-09474-8. 495 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Marinatos, Nanno and Robin Hägg, eds. Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches.

London and New York: Routledge, 1993. ISBN 0-415-05384-6; 0-415-12536-7

(pbk). xv, 245 pp.

Jamie Morton 12.1

May, Gerhard (tr. A. S. Worall). Creatio Ex Nihilo: The Doctrine of Creation

Out of Nothing in Early Christian Thought. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1994.

ISBN 0-567-09695-5. xvi, 197 pp.

Iain Doherty 12.1

McEwan, Colin. Ancient Mexico in the British Museum. London: British

Museum Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-2516-4 (pbk). 80 pp.

Anthony Shelton 11.2

McKeever Furst, Jill Leslie. The Natural History of the Soul in Ancient Mexico.

New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-300-06225-7.

x, 256 pp.

Nicole Bourque 13.1

Review Index

265

Miller, Patricia Cox. Dreams in Late Antiquity: Studies in the Imagination of

a Culture. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-691-

07422-4. xii, 273 pp.

Stephen J. Sutcliffe 11.1

Montiglio, Silvia. Silence in the Land of Logos. Princeton University Press,

Princeton, NJ, 2000. ISBN 0-691-00472-2. xi, 313 pp.

Emily Lyle 17.1

Mousalimas, S. A. The Transition from Shamanism to Russian Orthodoxy in

Alaska. Providence and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1995. ISBN 1-57181-006-

4. x, 254 pp.

Roy Willis 11.2

Nagle, Betty Rose, tr. and ed. Ovid’s Fasti: Roman Holidays. Bloomington:

Indiana University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-253-33967-7; 0-253-20933-1 (pbk).

224 pp.

Edward Bispham 13.1

Näsström, Britt-Mari. Freyja: The Great Goddess of the North. Lund Studies

in the History of Religions 5. Lund, Sweden: Dept of History of Religions,

University of Lund, 1995. ISSN 1103-4882; ISBN 91-22-01694-5. 224 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.2

Ó Catháin, Séamas. The Festival of Brigit: Celtic Goddess and Holy Woman.

Blackrock, Co. Dublin: DBA Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-9519692-3-4. xii,

194 pp.

Ronald Black 12.1

Ortony, Andrew, ed. Metaphor and Thought. 2nd edn. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-40547-5; 0-521-40561-0

(pbk). xiv, 678 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.2

Park, Chris C. Sacred Worlds: An Introduction to Geography and Religion.

London: Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09013-X (pbk). xiv, 332 pp.

Jeffrey F. Meyer 12.1

Partridge, Christopher, ed. UFO Religions. London, Routledge, 2003. ISBN

0-415-26324-7 (pbk). xvi, 383 pp.

Steven Sutcliffe 20


266

Parry, Jonathan P. Death in Banaras. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1994. ISBN 0-521-46074-3; 0-521-46625-3 (pbk) (simultaneous

publication). xxvi, 314 pp.

Neil Thin 11.1

Pinxten, Rik, David Scoff and Frank Van Dun, eds. Cultural Dynamics, vol.

7, no 1. Museums and Changing Perspectives of Culture. London, Thousand

Oaks, CA and New Delhi: Sage Publications, March 1995. ISSN 0921-3740.

160 pp.

Charles Hunt 11.2

Polomé, Edgar C. Indo-European Studies after Dumézil. Journal of Indo-

European Studies Monograph Series Number 16. Institute for the Study of

Man, Washington D.C., 1996. ISBN 0-941694-51-8. 196 pp.

Hans J. L. Jensen 14.1

Pratt, Annis. Dancing with Goddesses: Archetypes, Poetry and

Empowerment. Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994.

ISBN 0-253-34586-3; 0-253-20865-3 (pbk). xxiv, 408 pp.

Hilde Rapp 11.1

Rappaport, Roy A. Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-22873-5; 0-

521-29690-0 (pbk). xxiv, 535 pp.

Roy Willis 14.1

Rattue, James. The Living Stream: Holy Wells in Historical Context.

Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 1995. ISBN 0-85115-601-0. vi, 183 pp.

Michael Fraser 12.1

Raudvere, Andrén and Jennbert, eds. Myter om det nordiska. Mellan

romantik och politik. Vägar till Midgård 1. Nordic Academic Press, Lund.

2001. ISBN 91-89116-19-4. 190 pp.


Raudvere, Catharina. Kunskap och insikt i norrön tradition. Mytologi,

ritualer och trolldomsanklagelser. Vägar till Midgård Series 3. Nordic

Academic Press, Lund, 2003. ISBN 91-89116-36-4. 226 pp.


Renfrew, Colin and Ezra B. W. Zubrow, eds. The Ancient Mind: Elements of

Cognitive Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

ISBN 0-521-43488-2; 0-521-45620-7 (pbk) (simultaneous publication). 193

pp.

M. S. Midgley 11.1

Review Index

267

Rhie, Marylin M. and Robert F. Thurman. The Sacred Art of Tibet. London:

Thames and Hudson, 1996. ISBN 0-500-01718-2. 488 pp.

June Campbell 13.2

Ridgway, Brunilde S., et al. Greek Sculpture in the Art Museum, Princeton

University: Greek Originals, Roman Copies and Variants. The Art Museum,

Princeton University, 1994. ISBN 0-943112-17-1. 131 pp.

Glenys Davies 11.2

Roberts, Brian K. Landscapes of Settlement: Prehistory to the Present.

London and New York: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-11967-7; 0-415-

11968-5 (pbk). 181 pp.

David Trevarthen 13.1

Ruggles, Clive L. N. and Nicholas J. Saunders, eds. Astronomies and

Cultures. (Papers derived from the third “Oxford” International Symposium

on Archaeoastronomy, St Andrews, UK, September 1990). Niwot, Colorado:

University Press of Colorado, 1993. ISBN 0-87081-319-6. xviii, 344pp.

Stephan Peter Bumbacher 11.1

Ruggles, Clive L. N. Archaeoastronomy in the 1990s. (Papers derived from

the third “Oxford” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy, St

Andrews, UK, September 1990). Loughborough, Leicestershire: Group D

Publications, 1993. ISBN 0-874152-01-2. xvi, 364pp.

Stephan Peter Bumbacher 11.1

Sallis, John. Stone. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press,

1994. ISBN 0-253-35062-X; 0-253-20888-2 (pbk). ix, 147pp.

David Trevarthen 11.2

Sampson, Geoffrey. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford:

Stanford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-8047-1756-7; 0-8047-1254-9

(pbk). 234 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Sanders, Andrew. A Deed Without a Name: The Witch in Society and

History. Oxford: Berg, 1995. ISBN 1-85973-053-1 (pbk). 232 pp.

Mark C. Hanford 13.1

Senner, Wayne M., ed. The Origins of Writing. Lincoln and London:

University of Nebraska Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8032-4202-6; 0-8032-9167-1

(pbk). 245pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1


268

Shaw, Ian and Paul Nicholson. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt.

London: British Museum Press, 1995. ISBN 0-7141-0982-7. 328 pp.

Bill Manley 12.2

Sparkes, Brian A. The Red and the Black : Studies in Greek Painted Pottery.

London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-12661-4 (pbk). xxvii, 203 pp.

Siân Williams 14.2

Spencer, Nigel, ed. Time, Tradition and Society in Greek Archaeology:

Bridging the “Great Divide”. London and New York: Routledge, 1995. ISBN

0-415-11412-8. xviii, 179 pp.

Emily Lyle 14.2

Stehle, Eva. Performance and Gender in Ancient Greece: Nondramatic

Poetry in its Setting. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-

691-03617-9. xv, 367 pp.

Glenys Davies 13.2

Steiner, Deborah Tarn. The Tyrant’s Writ: Myths and Images of Writing in

Ancient Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-691-

03238-6. viii, 279 pp.

Lynn Holden 11.2

Stephens-Arroyo, Anthony M. and Gilbert R. Cadena, eds. Old Masks, New

Faces: Religion and Latino Identities. New York: Bildner Center for

Western Hemisphere Studies, 1995. ISBN 0-929972-09-0; 0-929972-10-4

(pbk). 196 pp.

Nicole Bourque 13.1

Stephens-Arroyo, Anthony M. and Andres I. Pérez y Mena, eds. Enigmatic

Powers: Syncretism and Indigenous Peoples’ Religions Among Latinos.

New York: Center for Western Hemisphere Studies, 1995. ISBN 0-929972-

11-2; 0-929972-12-0 (pbk). 208 pp.

Nicole Bourque 13.1

Stone, Alby. Ymir’s Flesh: North European Creation Mythologies.

Loughborough: Heart of Albion Press, 1997. ISBN 1-872883-45-1 (pbk).

xviii, 234 pp.

Mark Hanford 13.2

Stone Circles: A photographic tour, a CD-ROM by Tom Bullock.

David Trevarthen 15

Review Index

269

Stone-Miller, Rebecca. To Weave for the Sun: Ancient Andean Textiles.

London: Thames and Hudson, 1994. ISBN 0-500-17793-1. 271 pp.

Andrew Canessa 11.2

Strachan, Gordon. Jesus the Master Builder: Druid Mysteries and the Dawn

of Christianity. Edinburgh: Floris Books, 1998. ISBN 0-863-15275-9. 302

pp.

Peter Westbrook 16.1

Strohmeier John, and Peter Westbrook. Divine Harmony: The Life and

Teachings of Pythagoras. Berkeley: Berkeley Hills Books, 1999. ISBN 0-

9653774-5-8. 160 pp.

Emily Lyle 16.2

Studia Indo-Europæa: Revue de mythologie et de linguistique comparée.

Société Roumaine d’Études Indo-Européennes, Bucharest. ISSN 1583-3518.

Vol. 2, 2002-5. 255 pp.

Emily Lyle 20

Taylor, J. Glen. Yahweh and the Sun: Biblical and Archaeological Evidence

for Sun Worship in Ancient Israel. Journal for the Study of the Old

Testament, Supplement Series 111. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press,

1993. ISBN 1-85075-272-9. 308 pp.

J. C. L. Gibson 11.1

Thomas, J. Time, Culture and Identity: an interpretative archaeology.

London and New York: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-11861-1 (hbk). viii,

267 pp.

Magadlena S. Midgley 14.2

Tolstaya, Svetlana M. Polesskij narodnyj kalendar [The Polessian Folk

Calendar]. Moscow: Indrik, 2005. ISBN 5-85759-300-X. 600 pp.

Irina Sedakova 18

Twycross, Meg, ed. Festive Drama: Papers from the sixth Triennial

Colloquium of the International Society for the Study of Medieval Theatre –

Lancaster, 13-19 July, 1989. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1996. ISBN 0-85991-

496-8. viii, 286 pp.

Sandra Billington 14.2

Ucko, Peter J. and Robert Layton, eds. The Archaeology and Anthropology

of Landscape. Shaping your landscape. One World Archaeology Series 30.

London and New York: Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-11767-4. xxvi, 499

pp.

Aude Le Borgne 19.2


270

Urton, Gary, with the collaboration of Primitivo Nina Llanos. The Social Life of

Numbers: A Quechua Ontology of Numbers and Philosophy of Arithmetic.

Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997. ISBN 0-292-78533-X (cloth); ISBN

0-292-78534-8 (pbk). xv, 267 pp.

Emily Lyle 14.2

Vielle, Christophe. Le mytho-cycle héroïque dans l’aire indo-européenne.

Correspondances et transformations helléno-aryennes. Publications de

l’Institut Orientaliste de Louvain: Peeters, 1996. ISBN 2-87723-219-0. xvii,

253 pp.

Dean A. Miller 14.1

Visible Language: The Quarterly Journal Concerned With All That Is

Involved With Our Being Literate. Special Issue: The Origin of Visible

Language in the New World.Vol. 24, No 1, Winter 1990. ISSN 0022-2224.

132 pp.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Wolfson, Elliot R. Through a Speculum That Shines: Vision and Imagination

in Medieval Jewish Mysticism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

1994. ISBN 0-691-07343-0. x , 452 pp.

A. P. Hayman 14.2

World Archaeology Vol. 17 No. 3. Early Writing Systems, ed. Joan Oates,

February 1986, 161 pp., and Vol. 26 No. 1. Archaeology of Pilgrimage, ed.

James Graham-Campbell, June 1994, 122 pp. London and New York:

Routledge. ISSN 0043-8243.

Emily Lyle 11.1

Wriggins, Sally Hovey. Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road.

Boulder, Colorado and Oxford: Westview Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8133-2801-

2. xxiv, 363 pp.

William Dolby 13. 1

Wyatt, Gary. Spirit Faces: Contemporary Native American Masks from the

Northwest Coast. London: Thames and Hudson, 1994. ISBN 0-500-27800-8

(pbk). 144 pp.

S. A. Mousalimas 12.1

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