Rap Music and the Empowerment of Today’s Youth:Evidence in Everyday Music Listening, Music Therapy,and Commercial Rap Music

Raphael Travis Jr.

Published online: 16 November 2012

� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012

Abstract Pioneers of various elements of Hip-Hop culture have been empowered

through the ability to voice their reality and find a meaningful identity alongside

others who found purpose and function in embracing Hip-Hop culture (Chang,

Can’t stop won’t stop: A history of the hip-hop generation, 2005). This empower-

ment persists in various reinventions of the culture within the United States and

worldwide. The present study examines whether evidence exists in research to

support the value of esteem, resilience, growth, community and change as

empowering dimensions outlined in the individual and community empowerment

framework. Research questions ask: (1) Does youth self-expression in rap music

created within music therapy sessions reflect framework dimensions? (2) Does

content in commercially recognizable rap music reflect framework dimensions? (3)

How well does the framework align with a model of empowerment-based positive

youth development? First, data collected to examine the validity of the framework

were reviewed. Next, two peer-reviewed research studies published after articula-

tion of the original framework, were examined to investigate commonality between

themes and framework dimensions. One study was in a music therapy context and

another explored themes in commercial Hip-Hop recordings. Original framework

data supports theorizing that rap music content actually comprises developmentalnarratives (Travis and Deepak, 2011; Travis and Bowman, 2012). Data in the

present study further suggest that these developmental narratives are relevant for

Hip-Hop in every day music engagement, in therapeutic self-expression, and within

commercially available musical content. Framework dimensions also aligned with a

conceptual model of positive youth development that allows specification of

intervention pathways and empirically testable outcomes for Hip-Hop integrated

change strategies. Results suggest that rap music is a discourse in lifespan

R. Travis Jr. (&)

School of Social Work, Texas State University—San Marcos, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA

e-mail: rtravis@txstate.edu

123

Child Adolesc Soc Work J (2013) 30:139–167

DOI 10.1007/s10560-012-0285-x

development. Rap music’s developmental narratives may be used by practitioners,

parents and researchers. The narratives exist within a framework and model that

(a) provides a template for better understanding these narratives and (b) positions

this understanding for use as a tool to promote and research positive change strat-

egies for individuals and the communities that they value.

Keywords Positive youth development � Resilience � Hip-Hop � Culture � Risk �Empowerment � Identity � Health � Self-esteem � Youth organizing � Rap music �Music therapy

The short history of Hip-Hop culture and rap music was born of an environment that

was at once both oppressive and unyieldingly innovative. Present day rap music

shares these characteristics despite existing within a different landscape. Now, rap

music weaves throughout the fabric of pop-culture. Now, rap music includes

innovation from environments of injustice and oppression as much as environments

of unbridled wealth and prosperity. Consumers of contemporary rap music do not fit

neatly into stereotypical demographic genres (Iwamoto et al. 2007). We find

consumers across ages, racial and ethnic categories, genders, and geographic

regions. Hip-Hop enjoys as much praise in certain circles as it is maligned in others

(Rose 2008).

The profit-driven commercialization of the culture is as much responsible for its

proliferation, and maybe more so, as is the desire for artists to push the boundaries

of creativity and self-expression (Rose 2008). Technology makes music widely

available and economically accessible. Many web and satellite-based mechanisms

with mp3 enabled devices essentially make music ‘‘free’’ and portable including

YouTube, htttp://Datpiff.com, XM/Sirius satellite radio, Pandora, Spotify, other

web-based video sites (e.g., VH1, http://BET.com), iPhones, iPads, and file sharing

applications (Jenkins 2011). Add to these traditional outlets like radio and televi-

sion, and the result is music that is available for rapid and unfiltered consumption.

A byproduct of its wide availability is concern about excessive violence (Herd

2009a; Kubrin 2005), misogyny (Weitzer and Kubrin 2009; Dixon et al. 2009), and

substance use (Herd 2009b; Kubrin 2005) found in the lyrics and imagery. These are

believed to be not just innocuous entertainment, but actually major obstacles to

quality of life and well-being. However, the present paper argues that we are amidst

a paradigm shift related to the broader Hip-Hop culture and society. Despite

arguments to the counter, a greater emphasis exists on deconstructing cultural

content and dynamics for personal growth and development, community well-being,

and redressing inequities (Petchauer 2011a, b; Tyson et al. 2012; Prier and Beachum

2008a; Clay 2006; Veltre and Hadley 2012; Viega 2012; Emdin 2010; Seidel 2011).

The present study examines the extent that music engagement, in every day

circumstances and within therapeutic environments, facilitates a range functional

attitudes and behaviors. The core research question asks whether empirical support

exists for theorizing about the connection between developmental themes of esteem,

resilience, growth, community and change outlined in the individual and community

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empowerment framework, and music engagement among youth and young adults.

The specific research questions ask: (1) Does youth self-expression, in rap music

created within music therapy sessions, reflect framework dimensions? (2) Does

content in commercially recognizable rap music reflect framework dimensions? (3)

How well do framework dimensions align with an empowerment-based model of

positive youth development?

Integrating Hip-Hop Culture into Developmental Interventions

A byproduct of interest in the empowering aspects of Hip-Hop culture is

incorporation of newer research findings into change efforts in education, therapies

and youth work that harness more than simply the ‘‘feel good’’ and ‘‘survival-of-the-

fittest’’ mentality often cited within Hip-Hop culture. To consolidate terminology,

the range of youth work strategies will be referred to as ‘‘developmental

interventions’’ to speak to the health promotion and prevention aspects of

education, therapy and youth work (Guerra and Bradshaw 2008). To accurately

capture, define and disseminate the scope of these trends, Hip-Hop culture and

specifically rap music deserve more nuanced analyses and measurements of their

use, and the impacts of education, prevention, intervention and social change

strategies at both the individual and community levels.

This new paradigm of Hip-Hop’s use includes goals of empowerment for

individuals and communities, moving from an emphasis on ‘‘me’’ to a simultaneous

emphasis on the collective ‘‘we’’. It has not been a subtle shift, but in fact a major shift.

Programs, interventions, research, advocacy and other projects seeking to improve

well-being outcomes are widespread. These strategies include individual and group

therapies (Leafloor 2012; Lightstone, 2012a; Tyson et al. 2012), afterschool programs

(Alvarez 2012), academic classrooms (Emdin 2010; Petchauer 2011a), whole school

strategies (Seidel 2011), social justice campaigns and international struggles for

human rights (Delgado and Staples 2008; Ginwright et al. 2006).

Individual and Community Empowerment Framework Background

The individual and community empowerment framework offers a structure and

terminology to help understand and analyze potential themes and messages within

the text of rap music (Travis and Deepak 2011; Travis and Bowman 2012). The

framework was introduced as a method of increasing cultural competence among

social workers and other potential youth workers. The objective was that Hip-Hop

culture could be as much of a learning tool for practitioners as a therapeutic tool for

integration into practice. Subsequently, the framework was used to frame empirical

research to help better understand the empowering and risky functions of rap music

engagement as articulated by youth and young adults (Travis and Bowman 2011,

2012). Since the original publication, empirical data has been collected to help

validate empowerment and risk constructs (Travis and Bowman 2011, 2012).

Several important comprehensive lyrics analyses were also published (Tyson et al.

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2012; Lightstone 2012b) that provide thematic data to compare and contrast with

the framework. Finally, a wealth of new research has developed that examines the

functional values of ‘‘everyday’’ music engagement by youth and adults (Saarikallio

2011; Chin and Rickard 2012) that offer insight into how practitioners can build

upon therapeutic ‘‘self-medication’’ that is taking place with youth.

Aside from consideration of new data, the research foundations of the framework

dimensions also need refinement and elaboration, including both their connection to

Hip-Hop research, and their relevance to developmental outcomes; critical if the

framework is to have substantive therapeutic utility. The results of this update aim

to inform therapeutic and positive youth development strategies for practitioners

that address change at the individual or community level.

First, a brief introduction is given to research on music engagement by youth and

adults that occur within ‘‘everyday’’ use and outside the confines of professional

change strategies. Next, the core dimensions in the individual and community

empowerment model (e.g., resilience) are defined outside the context of Hip-Hop

culture. This will help clarify their developmental relevance, and provide beginning

evidence for later alignment of the framework with a model for positive youth

development. Third, ICE dimensions are discussed within rap music and Hip-Hop

research to illustrate both empowering and risky dynamics. Following these

foundational meanings will be an overview of recent data collected explicit to this

framework and not specific to this framework but also relevant to empirically testing

the presence of empowering or ‘‘positive and constructive themes’’ (Tyson et al. 2012)

that can be useful for helping professionals.

In the subsequent sections, we pair this framework with a theoretical model of

empowerment-based positive youth development (EMPYD) to show how the

themes of each ICE dimension correspond with valid developmental outcome

indicators, and coalesce into a meaningful developmental model that bridges youth

and environment.

Music Engagement

It is nearly impossible to walk through any major setting where large numbers of

youth are gathered without seeing headphones in ears or hearing music playing. In

general music is associated with emotional reactions, sometimes via incidental

stimulus (Juslin et al. 2011) and sometimes intentionally for regulating affect

(Saarikallio 2011). These ‘‘everyday’’ exposures to music and associated emotions

are important to consider for insight into ‘‘how’’ music may be developmentally

relevant or ‘‘therapeutic’’ for youth. Music engagement has shown to facilitate

emotional regulation, where both adolescents and adults often turn to music to

promote positive mood, reduce negative mood, and invoke nostalgia or solace

(Miranda and Claes 2009; Saarikallio 2011; Juslin et al. 2011). For example, in a

study of adults, individuals used music for ‘‘expression of feelings, reinforcement of

feelings, and the discharge of feelings’’ (Saarikallio 2011). Differences by gender

are not consistent but emotion-oriented coping was shown as less effective for boys,

and significantly associated with depression (Miranda and Claes 2009).

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Research on music engagement has since expanded beyond emotion regulation to

examine affect regulation, cognitive, emotional, social and physical functioning,

health, and quality of life, each as valued coping strategies among youth and adults

(Saarikallio 2011; Laiho 2004; Mindlin et al. 2012; Chin and Rickard 2012; Juslin

et al. 2011). These findings are important because they suggest that people actively

cope through engagement with music. They already use music as a strategy for help

without any professional help. By building upon the basic science of music

engagement, we can scaffold robust and innovative developmental strategies for

music engagement within youth development interventions. However, even among

current promising research, a gap remains in attention to the socio-cultural context of

youth within which music engagement occurs (Kubrin 2005), particularly youth

within perceived marginalized communities. A significant opportunity exists to bridge

research on music engagement with research on meaningful rap music themes.

Hip-Hop Culture and Rap Music

For many youth, Hip-Hop ‘‘is a familiar media where they feel valued and validated

and most free to express themselves… It could be Hip-Hop music, graffiti murals and

street theatre, but it could also be heavy metal, video and newsletters’’ (Delgado and

Staples 2008, p. 169). Rap music content captures coping mechanisms, varied

representations of identity (Kitwana 2005; Newman 2007; Nair and Balaji 2008; Jay-Z

2010) and culture (Chang 2005; Rose 2008; Morgan and Warren 2011; Tinsley et al.

2010). Rap music lyrics may also capture the emancipatory principles of social justice

and corresponding activism (Flores-Gonzalez et al. 2006; Delgado and Staples 2008;

Prier and Beachum 2008b; Lightstone 2012b), along with empowering themes that can

promote individual and community health (Kobin and Tyson 2006; Kubrin 2005;

Elligan 2004; Tillie Allen 2005; Hicks-Harper et al. 2007; Orange 1996). The

individual and community empowerment framework consolidates these thematic

interpretations and the perceived functional values of rap music.

The Individual and Community Empowerment Framework

The purpose of the individual and community empowerment framework (Table 1)

is to be a tool for consistent and meaningful (a) empirical analyses and

(b) developmental interventions that build on content and ideas from Hip-Hop

culture. The present study will compare new evidence to the tenets of the

framework, with the objective of contributing to useful communication between

research and practice and greater effectiveness in youth work.

Empowerment

Empowerment is a broad construct within which to privilege the framework

dimensions of esteem, resilience, and growth (individual empowerment), along with

community and change (community empowerment). Each dimension has a core

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definition from the social sciences, but also a specific contextual relevance within

rap music culture. These connections will initially be explained in detail, and later

reintroduced for their developmental significance, offering a template for develop-

mental interventions.

Empowerment exists in the literature as both process and outcome, and at the

individual and community levels (Wagaman 2011). These findings align with our use

of it as an overarching concept with unique measurable dimensions within, and

applicability at both the individual and community levels. For the present study, I will

integrate two quality meanings offered. Wagaman (2011) defines empowerment as,

‘‘the process by which adolescents develop the consciousness and skills necessary to

envision social change and understand their role in that change.’’ The concepts of

power and personal change are important too, as articulated by Delgado and Staples

(2008, p. 105). Thus, empowerment is ‘‘the process by which adolescents develop the

consciousness, skills and power necessary to envision personal or collective well-

being and understand their role within opportunities to transform social conditions to

achieve that well-being.’’ The ICE framework encompasses dimensions that

collectively speak to all features of the definition of empowerment.

The empowered individual is less likely to feel hopeless or helpless; less likely to

feel victimized; less likely to perceive continued adversity. The empowered

individual is actively working to fulfill their perceived potential by using their

existing knowledge, positive attitudes and interpersonal skills. At the community

level, empowered adults and youth work ‘‘envision change in the broader social,

political and economic system and their role in creating positive change’’

(Wagaman 2011). This usually occurs through the development of sociopolitical

awareness (Watts et al. 2003) and social empathy (Wagaman 2011) at the individual

level, along with linkages to formal institutions at the community level to pressure

external systems that are blamed for unequal access to power and resources

(Delgado and Staples 2008, pp. 106–108).

Esteem

Self-esteem is a multi-dimensional concept, including perceived self worth, but also

thoughts of how others perceive the individual. Self-esteem captures one’s net

evaluation of self and the extent that it is ‘‘favorable’’ and ‘‘satisfying’’ (Gomes and

Speizer 2010). Perceived ‘‘other-based’’ self-esteem has shown to be especially

significant for mental health, where even when controlling for levels of hopelessness

Table 1 The individual and community empowerment framework and dimensions of esteem, resilience,

and growth for individual empowerment, and community and change for community empowerment

The individual and community empowerment framework

Individual empowerment Community empowerment

Esteem:

feeling better

Resilience:

doing better

Growth:

being better

Community: better sense

of belonging

Change: change for

better conditions

The framework and table are adapted from Travis and Deepak (2011)

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and depression, greater ‘‘other-based self-esteem’’ was the strongest predictor of

suicidal ideation (Bhar et al. 2008). There is also a connection to distinct-but-

contributing elements of positive psychology and well-being theory: positive emotion,engagement and accomplishment (Seligman 2011). Each are considered core

components of well-being.

High self-esteem is also valuable within the context of risk and resilience. For

example, during instances of adversity within high-risk contents, those with higher

levels of self-esteem demonstrate healthier growth, clarity of thinking and ‘‘adaptive

coping’’ (Tynes et al. 2012). In other instances, adolescents with low self-esteem

seemed to have a type of ‘‘self-rejection from perceived lack of respect and lack of

self-satisfaction’’ (Gomes and Speizer 2010). Social support and avoiding feelings

of alienation were critical (Gomes and Speizer 2010), a dynamic echoed among

socially anxious individuals (Hulme et al. 2012). Purposefully engaging positive

self-images is also valuable for self-esteem. ‘‘Purposefully thinking about positive

self-images appears to help promote a healthy positive implicit bias, as well as

improve self-esteem’’ (Hulme et al. 2012). This may play a factor in research on

television viewing in the United States. Among preadolescent African American

boys and girls, and White girls in the study, unlike White boys, increased television

viewing was associated with decreased self-esteem (Martins and Harrison 2012).

However, the practical value of facilitating esteem must consider the range of

unique pathways to esteem for each individual (Guerra and Bradshaw 2008).

Resilience

Resilience is generally ‘‘positive adaptation within the context of significant

adversity’’ (Luthar et al. 2000; Masten 2001). Adding precision to potential

pathways of specific measurement is the description of resilience as ‘‘the process of

negotiating, managing, and adapting to significant sources of stress or trauma’’

(Windle et al. 2011, p. 2). These adversities and stressors place the individual at risk

for one or more undesirable well-being outcomes, allowing for opportunities of

domain specific resilience. Resilience is not global; rather it is specific to life areas

of concern. Resilience may be better-than-expected competence after having ‘‘at-

risk status’’ (e.g., low birth weight). It can be returning to optimal functioning after

a decline due to a period of risk (e.g., unemployment for self or a major household

provider). Resilience can also be positive functioning after an acute incident (e.g.,

trauma, loss). Resilience may also simply be maintaining functioning despite

ongoing adversity (e.g., living in poverty, pervasive violence) (Luthar et al. 2000).

Critical to the idea of resilience is that certain ecological factors and processes work inpartnership with individual strengths to mitigate the potentially negative outcomes

associated with the adversity and risk (Jain et al. 2012). These protective factors or

processes are the mechanisms of coping that are also excellent opportunities for

intervention (Jain et al. 2012). Coping is closely associated to resilience, as it occurs prior

to actual outcomes of resilience. Coping is the person-environment transaction during or

after adversity, while resilience is the developmental outcome being assessed (Leipold and

Greve 2009). Resilience outcomes may also differ. The threatening or stressful problem

may be fully mitigated, but just as important, their impacts may be partially mitigated, or

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even avoided (Leipold and Greve 2009, p. 44). An important aspect of resilience and

coping within the empowerment framework is that these processes may be low risk or highrisk, with risky elements of the person and environment.

An extension of these principles that examine net benefits of overcoming

significant or even traumatic adversity is the concept of post-traumatic growth(Seligman 2011, p. 162). Critical to ideas of resilience is that the coping processes

that facilitate resilience exist within a network of developmental assets (Jain et al.

2012; Urban et al. 2009) that are more normal than extraordinary (Masten 2001).

Growth

The third and final dimension of the individual empowerment portion of the framework

emphasizes growth. It includes deliberately development-enhancing processes, anal-

ogous to thriving (Lerner et al. 2009), flourishing (Seligman 2011), and corecompetencies for positive youth development and risk prevention (Guerra and Bradshaw

2008). This growth and development may or may not be within the context of adversity

or risk like in the resilience dimension. This portion of the framework emphasizes

growth as future-oriented leaning toward potential well-being, in contrast to potential

growth affiliated with resilience that is reactionary, or in response to adversity.

Definitions of the processes of developing, and time-specific outcomes of

developmental growth, are the research-based positive youth development catego-

ries of competence, confidence, connection, character and caring, along with

contribution (Lerner et al. 2005). These align well with five core competencies

bridging positive youth development and risk prevention written about by Guerra

and Bradshaw (2008): positive sense of self, pro-social connectedness, self-control,decision-making skills, and a moral system of belief. Connection and contribution in

youth development research are also analogous to how positive relationships and

meaning help facilitate flourishing in well-being theory (Seligman 2011, pp. 24–27).

Empirical support for indicators of positive youth development as valid and reliable

constructs has increased, as has their correlation with inhibited risk outcomes

(Bowers et al. 2010; Lewin-Bizan et al. 2010; Scales et al. 2006; Jelicic et al. 2007).

Connection is Critical

Connection includes supportive, prosocial and caring relationships among important

people in a young person’s life. This connection can also encompass spirituality and

similarly supportive, meaningful spiritual relationships with a higher power and a

faith community (Smith and Jackson 2005). Connection is a critical dimension of

positive youth development because of its multiple links to other important aspects

of development. Proportionally, youth with stronger connections to family, school,

and peers tend to be more confident, competent, and demonstrate greater character

and caring.

Community

The community empowerment aspect of the framework includes community and

change dimensions. The community dimension speaks to psychological connection as

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well as social engagement with members of a group or community (Chavis et al. 2008).

Empowerment occurs via a heightened sense of belonging to an identified group but it

is also that there is functional and authentic value to this membership. The assumption

is that members value their associations and that they are committed to these

relationships—enough that members feel secure in their needs being met through

group membership (Chavis et al. 2008; Evans 2007). This sense of community may be

as obvious as with family, but it may also be identification with a team, workplace,

spiritual community, gang, race/ethnicity, sexual identity, or neighborhood. These

communities, within which social identities are established, have accompanying

cultures with which individuals engage, adopt an accompanying sense of belonging

and perform roles (Stets and Burke 2000). These perceived memberships could be

complicated by intersectionalities that create unique experiences, such as being

African American and male in contrast to being White and female. Both gender and

race/ethnicity are associated with unique community dynamics.

Belonging occurs through conditions established within the environment and

within strong social networks (Urban et al. 2009). Similar to resilience at the individual

level, another empowering facet of belonging within given communities is

culturalresilience. This speaks to the strengths and resources within families, identity

groups and neighborhoods that have allowed members to overcome adversity—as acommunity (Benard 2006; Ungar et al. 2007). Desired outcomes are for collective

growth at the community or collective identity level. Also prominent in this dimension

are groups that perceive themselves as marginalized within society, by race/ethnicity,

socio-economic status, gender or sexual identity, but are empowered through

belonging to a shared history, pride in cultural accomplishments and cultural

resilience. Notions of resilience correspond to the articulation of overcoming

adversities experienced as members of these communities. Payne furthers this

argument by describing how geographic space and structure can be of tremendous

value among certain groups because of its transmission of cultural assets, promoting

resilience and creating conditions for empowerment (Payne 2011).

Change

The change dimension refers to change for better conditions within communities of

identification. The nature and degree of desired change for a preferred community is

entirely subjective. The goals of positive social change may be accepting the status

quo but changing morals/values, mitigating perceived inequities, or eliminating

perceived inequities through substantive system change (Delgado and Staples 2008;

Southern California Step Session 2000).

Empowerment Dimensions and Hip-Hop Research

Esteem and Hip-Hop

Within rap music, messages about self-image, experiences that reinforce positive

moods, minimize pain and celebrate esteem enhancing strategies are common.

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Research on potential influences on self-esteem in Hip-Hop relate to both individual

and collective identities (Dixon et al. 2009). The focus of this dimension is

primarily concerned with the individual level but acknowledges the significant

interrelatedness of individual and collective identity within development and Hip-

Hop (Pulido 2009). The community dimension of the framework captures this

dynamic in more detail. However, building on the theme of individual views of self

and desired identity, a study by Newman (2007) shed light on why some students

found commercial and ‘‘non-progressive’’ Hip-Hop more appealing. These youth

felt that commercial Hip-Hop more overtly supported ‘‘their dreams and expecta-

tions of a successful and prosperous adulthood’’. In contrast, they perceived that

‘‘conscious’’ rap portrayed them ‘‘as victims whose only hope is a massive and

unrealistic social change’’ (Newman 2007, p. 131). This suggests that for some, the

value placed on esteem-enhancing messages may also emerge from marginalization

due to belonging to certain ‘‘communities’’, such as by race, ethnicity, SES or class,

age, or gender.

Resilience and Hip-Hop

Rap music is rich with messages about life experiences, strategies for overcoming

life obstacles, and perspectives on how to prioritize these strategies. The roots of

Hip-Hop culture existed amidst tremendous economic and social strife in Jamaica

and the Bronx (Chang 2005; Rose 2008). Youth and young adults that created and

embraced Hip-Hop lived among tremendous adversities and used the art and culture

to transcend challenging aspects of their circumstances (Chang 2005; Rose 2008;

Jay-Z 2010). The individual and community empowerment framework suggests that

this phenomenon of transcendence persists today (Travis and Deepak 2011).

Resilience themes in rap music in many ways give context for some of the emotions

and self-perceptions in the esteem dimension because of the richness by which

environments are recreated through imagery and language (Kubrin 2005; Jay-Z

2010). These narratives of the lived experience are the environments of happiness

and pain that help shape identities and perceived self-esteem. Resilience generally

reflects competence in the face of adversity, or ability to ‘‘bounce back’’ from

challenges. It also captures the subtle dynamic of simultaneous ‘‘failure’’ in one area

of life, yet thriving in another area of life (Morgan and Warren 2011).

Another important aspect of Hip-Hop culture is the significant respect afforded

to those successful individuals that have been able to negotiate ‘‘street life’’ or

bounce back from life challenges in general. This ‘‘O.G.’’ or original gangster

status is akin to respect offered to experience or tenure in workplace settings. An

O.G. in Hip-Hop culture is an elder statesman, a worthy role model for many, and

a seasoned mentor. These individuals often offer a blueprint for success (i.e.,

competencies and confidence) in given avenues of life. The value of this level of

respect is significant because it suggests that a survival mode for resilient

individuals is more than simply for self-preservation, but also for retaining status

and growth oriented competencies (e.g., like maintaining tenure, or renewing

licensure for a credentialed professional).

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Growth and Hip-Hop

Within rap music, growth themes describe how individuals have matured, become

healthier or whole, and how they seek to maintain or build upon that growth. The

growth domain emphasizes competency building with an emphasis on actualizing

potential. The impetus is not risk contingent. Growth also corresponds to additional

pathways of development, including the valence of competencies, which can be

reflected in caring and character dimensions (Fig. 1). These constructs capture the

moral identity pathways including caring, character and connection. Connection is

of particular value here as well because of the importance of significant

relationships to reinforce competence, caring and character building opportunities.

As a distinct dimension, this is examined less within Hip-Hop research. However,

the concepts often link to areas of esteem, individual and collective identity, and

resilience-oriented competencies at the individual and community levels. This may

be a reflection that growth is distinctly context specific and does not warrant its own

conceptual relevance. I argue that a focus on individual and collective potential

without being reactionary is represented strongly enough within the culture to

examine substantively.

Community and Hip-Hop

Rap music contains community themes of: group-level realities, the value of

community experiences, community roles and community aspirations. Music has

shown to bring groups together and foster a more unified social identity

(Bakagiannis and Tarrant 2006). Many marginalized ‘‘communities’’ have found

their voice within Hip-Hop in the same capacity as the youth of the Bronx did in the

1970s. For example, immigrant populations and the poor within the United States

have found another avenue of expression within Hip-Hop. Many collective

identities often shine brightly within Hip-Hop whether it is race/ethnicity (Dixon

et al. 2009; Lashua and Fox 2006), gender (Squires et al. 2006) or other. In another

example, within rap music of the United States, there is the ubiquitous nature of

geographic references, coastal, state, city, and within region references down to the

block and street levels. These community references often link to resilience themes,

by chronicling the adverse social realities. Internationally, youth in the Banlieues of

France, youth in the informal settlements and townships of South Africa, youth in

predominantly Colored townships or predominantly African townships of South

Africa, and youth in different regions of Hong Kong have all found voices for their

unique ‘‘lifeworlds,’’ accompanying adversities, and pathways to resilience (Alim

et al. 2008; Ungar et al. 2007).

Change and Hip-Hop

A substantive stream of rap music exists around increasing awareness of social

problems, disparities and injustices (Clay 2006; Jenkins 2011; Rose 2008; Trapp

2005). The commercialization of Hip-Hop culture has perpetuated a stereotype that

the spirit of social change has been eliminated. Further, representations of change-

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based empowerment messages have been lumped into the category of ‘‘conscious’’

rap. Yet, as Jenkins (2011) describes, the ‘‘intellectual identity’’ within Hip-Hop

culture is alive and well, and this includes active articulation of social problems,

disparities and injustices.

The nature of these problems, disparities and injustices echo the most common

campaign and community issues prevalent in youth civic engagement: educational

injustice, racial justice, environmental justice, health and criminal justice, along with

other critical areas affecting communities of interest such as violence and crime

(Jenkins 2011; Torres-Fleming et al. 2011). Rap music has historically and continues

to embrace greater awareness of the need for positive change and opportunities to

engage in actions for change across a range of communities of interest.

Empowerment Dimensions with Potentially Risky Attitudes and Behaviors

Amidst themes of empowerment are clear examples of themes that are risky. I avoid

the terms good, bad, positive, or negative, as they are both value-laden and

empirically less useful. However, themes and content based on risky attitudes and

behaviors reflect content that if acted upon has a higher risk for contributing to

unhealthy well-being outcomes. The more prominent and visible high-risk themes

reflect attitudes and behaviors that are violence friendly, substance use friendly, and

unhealthy toward women, girls and relationships (Herd 2009a; Kubrin 2005;

Weitzer and Kubrin 2009; Conrad and coworkers 2009; Herd 2009b). However,

additional risky themes are those that interfere with judgment in a way that can

obstruct prosocial empowerment. Each dimension includes a small sample of

potential risky music engagement.

Among esteem-enhancing strategies, you may also find exploitation, materialism,

and risky behaviors (e.g., violence, substance use, victimization of others). The

desire for a strong sense of self, respect in the eyes of others, happiness, and

influence over life’s affairs is not inherently negative or problematic. However, the

means by which individuals attain these goals may be high or low risk—to self or

others (Travis and Deepak 2011; Travis and Bowman 2012a).

Resilience or the ability to transcend adversity, with certain competencies in the

face of challenges is a powerful narrative. However, there is substantial variability

in the risk associated with the range of potential strategies used to make this happen.

For example, while poverty and victimization are adverse conditions worthy of

overcoming, promotion of a strong work ethic, persistence or self-defense can be

complicated by the actual methods (e.g., illicit activity or violence) associated with

those outcomes (Kubrin 2005).

An ability for personal growth, to be a better person and to display behaviors

contributing to this growth in well-being are generally empowering. Risk amidst this

growth occurs when strategies for self-improvement promote risky attitudes or

behaviors, when they are at the expense of others, or when they pass judgment on

others. Exploitation of others for one’s benefit is risk-embedded empowerment.

Similarly, connection, intimacy and sexuality in general are normal life dynamics

explored within rap music. These concepts should not always be lumped under an

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umbrella of misogyny (Morgan and Neal 2006, p. 237; Ogbar 2007, p. 103). Yet, do

representations of interpersonal relationships normalize unhealthy conflict, vio-

lence, or sex as a commodity? An appreciation of how to describe, nurture and

sustain healthy romantic relationships is just as critical as other peer and family

interpersonal relationships.

Improving one’s sense of belonging, commitment, and perceived safety within a

valued community is generally empowering. However, risk in heightened involvement

and identification with any ‘‘community’’ occurs when enhanced belonging occurs

within a community with high exposure to risky attitudes and behavior, hostility

towards, discrimination against or victimization of members of another community.

The major risks among themes of change are the stance taken toward desired

change in the status quo, and the strategies by which change will occur. Varied civic

engagement trajectories have the potential to strengthen but also weaken one’s

relationships within valued social networks (Watts et al. 2003). Thus, allempowering narratives are vulnerable to the level of risk inherent within them.

Testing the Framework: Evidence of Individual and CommunityEmpowerment

The present study sought to determine the extent that music engagement may

facilitate the range of functional attitudes and behaviors: cognitive, social, physical

and emotional. The core research question asks whether empirical support exists for

theorizing about the connection between developmental themes of esteem,

resilience, growth, community and change as narrative text, and actual music

engagement among youth and young adults. The sources of data examined are prior

peer reviewed studies based on the framework (i.e., prior research questions a, b,

and c) and two recent Hip-Hop related studies conducting comprehensive lyrics

analyses (i.e., research questions 1–3). The paper concludes with an examination of

the framework alongside a research informed model of empowerment-based

positive youth development.

Again, esteem, resilience and growth are dimensions of individual empowerment,while community and change are elements of community empowerment. However,

individual and community empowerment are not mutually exclusive and music

engagement may be inclusive of multiple dimensions simultaneously.

Music Engagement and Empowerment

Prior Research Question A Are individual and community empowerment

dimensions valid and reliable constructs for music (self) engagement?

Evidence suggested that individual and community empowerment were valid and

reliable constructs reflecting the functional value of rap music engagement (Travis

and Bowman 2012). Indicators of individual and community empowerment

suggested that participants’ engagement of rap music was associated with emotional

regulation and additional functional relationships (Table 2).

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Scales elicited both risky and empowering elements of music engagement. Risky

elements were low in frequency but present nonetheless. The highest frequency for

any indicator of individual risk, at 20 % of respondents, was, ‘‘I am more

comfortable with the idea of drinking alcohol while listening to rap music.’’ The

Table 2 Response frequencies: individual empowerment, community empowerment, individual risk

dimensions

Item Agree Disagree

Empowerment subscale (individual and community)

1. Rap music helps me make it through bad times 50.0 50.0

2. It is easier to listen to Rap music that talks about issues in my life than for me to

talk to other people about issues in my life

40.6 59.4

3. Listening to Rap music has made it easier for me to talk about my problems 36.8 63.2

4. Rap music provides me an outlet to express myself 55.5 44.5

5. I hear messages about doing well in school when listening to Rap music 38.3 61.7

6. Rap music gives me the chance to do things that I am good at in a way I can’t in

school

33.6 66.4

7. Rap music helps me think carefully about my behavior 43.8 56.2

8. Rap music helps me think about doing more positive behaviors 39.8 60.2

9. Rap music helps me feel I can make decisions that will have a definite positive

impact on my life

45.3 54.7

10. Rap music has helped me see that other people go through similar life problems

as me

53.9 46.1

11. I connect with other people that share my interests through Rap music 63.3 36.7

12. Rap music encourages me to be proud of my race/ethnicity 46.1 53.9

13. Listening to Rap music has helped me think critically about the world around me 61.7 38.3

14. Rap music makes me want to do something positive for my neighborhood 43.8 56.2

15. Rap music that I listen to gives me hope that conditions in my neighborhood can

be better

36.7 63.3

Individual risk subscale

16. I am more comfortable with the idea of smoking marijuana (i.e., weed) while

listening to Rap music

16.4 83.6

17. I am more comfortable with the idea of selling drugs after listening to Rap music 8.6 91.4

18. I am more comfortable with the idea of drinking alcohol while listening to Rap

music

20.4 79.6

19. I am more comfortable with the idea of using cocaine while listening to Rap

music

9.4 90.6

20. I tend to feel more comfortable with using codeine promethazine (AKA lean,

drank, purple stuff, or barre) while listening to Rap music

14.0 86.0

21. I feel more okay about committing some crimes after listening to Rap music 12.5 87.5

22. I am more comfortable with the idea of using Ecstasy while listening to Rap

music

12.5 87.5

The individual and community empowerment inventory is from Travis and Bowman (2011). Negotiat-

ingrisk and promoting empowerment through rap music: Development of a measure to capture risk and

empowermentpathways to change. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 21,

654-678.The subscales represented above include individual empowerment, community empowerment,and individual risk

152 R. Travis Jr.

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next risk categories were comfort with smoking marijuana (16.4 %), and comfortwith using codeine promethazine (14 %). However, consistently, more than one-

third of the sample agreed or strongly agreed that their engagement with rap music

was empowering. In some instances, half or more were in agreement. For example,

half of respondents felt ‘‘rap music helps me make it through bad times,’’ 55 %

stated ‘‘rap music provides me an outlet to express myself,’’ and more than 61 %

felt ‘‘rap music has helped me think critically about the world around me.’’ Moving

even more deliberately toward concrete action was 44 % reporting that ‘‘rap music

makes me want to do something positive for my neighborhood.’’

Ethnic Identity, Empowering Music Engagement and Depressive Symptoms

Prior Research Question B Does empowering music engagement have benefit with

ethnic identity and self-esteem in contributing to variability in depressive

symptoms?

Subsequent research examined the relationships among empowering and risky

rap music (self) engagement, age, gender, ethnic identity, self-esteem and

depressive symptoms (Travis and Bowman 2012b). Here, research suggested that

individual and community empowerment constructs were also significantly

associated with developmentally relevant concepts such as ethnic identity (Travis

and Bowman 2012b). These results supported prior research demonstrating the

contributions of positive ethnic identity and positive self-esteem on reduced

depressive symptoms (Mandara et al. 2009). However, ethnic identity and self-

esteem seemed to be important for different reasons. Positive ethnic identity, but not

self-esteem, was associated with increased empowering music engagement as a

significant pathway to reduced depressive symptoms. Empowering music engage-

ment, particularly community empowerment, was significantly associated with

inhibited depressive symptoms. ‘‘The least likely to show depressive symptoms

were individuals who felt rap music inspired them to connect with others, consider

experiences of others, think critically about the world around them, and want to

make a difference in their communities (i.e., community empowerment)’’ (Travis

and Bowman 2012).

These latter findings take on added significance when put into the context of

research about the contemporary social realities of marginalized adolescents in a

social media age. For example, when looking at prejudice and stereotyping effects,

we see that positive ethnic identity and self-esteem can buffer anxiety associated

with online discrimination (i.e., derogatory text, images, and symbols that directly

target an individual because of his or her race) (Tynes et al. 2012). This is promising

in light of theorizing that depression can be instigated from societal, interpersonal or

intrapersonal triggers (Cox et al. 2012).

These collective findings further arguments for the potential functional value of

music engagement that transcends emotional regulation. Considerable room exists

to examine the functional attitudes and behaviors associated with dimensions of the

individual and community empowerment framework. These links to empowerment

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also suggest that music may be a powerful asset for building upon the desires of

youth to thrive, persevere and contribute to the betterment of their communities

(Travis and Bowman 2012b).

Music Engagement and Risk

Prior Research Question C What role does risky music engagement play amongst

empowerment, and other well-being indicators?

Youth, adolescents and young adults have complex perspectives on the roles of

music in their lives. Prior research examining perceptions of music engagement found

listeners taking away both empowering and risky messages. The theoretical distinction

between the constructs suggests that they can both be present for listeners/engagers at

the same time and that they should not be consistently statistically associated, either

negatively or positively. Levels of empowering music engagement did not affect risk-

based music engagement and vice versa. These findings persisted largely irrespective

of the amount of time individuals listened to music (Travis and Bowman 2012b).

Findings suggest that empowering or prosocial effects of music engagement and risky

effects are not mutually exclusive (Travis and Bowman 2012a).

Younger and male participants were significantly more likely to elicit riskyattitudes from music, reporting that they felt more comfortable engaging in

substance use and violent behavior when listening to their rap music (Travis and

Bowman 2012b). While high self-esteem was significantly associated with

decreased depressive symptoms, it was also was associated with increasedperceptions of risky music engagement (Travis and Bowman 2012b).

Comprehensive Analyses of Rap Music Lyrics

Although literal translation of lyrics may not always be a primary goal, the need for

closer analysis of Hip-Hop music content is emphasized across and within disciplines

(Jenkins 2011; Lightstone 2012a, b; Tyson et al. 2012). For example, greater

attunement to music lyrics has been a part of professional development efforts to

strengthen cultural competence among youth workers and help them to understand the

health enhancing potential of Hip-Hop and youth culture (Hicks-Harper et al. 2007;

Tillie Allen 2005). Within therapeutic strategies, lyrical analyses can help music

therapists making sense of lyrical content created by clients. Practitioners integrating

Hip-Hop into therapeutic strategies can be assisted as they seek to identify optimal

therapeutic value. Comprehensive analyses of existing rap music lyrics, including

organized content analyses of songs can be found in Tyson et al. (2012), Lightstone

(2012b), Kubrin (2005), Weitzer and Kubrin (2009) and Herd (2009a, b).

Framework Dimensions and Coded Research Themes

Research Question 1 Does youth self-expression in rap music created within

music therapy sessions reflect framework dimensions?

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Research Question 2 Does content in commercially recognizable rap music reflect

framework dimensions?

I will discuss the two research studies published since original publication of the

framework (Lightstone 2012b; Tyson et al. 2012). Lightstone coded content created

by youth within a music therapy context. Themes were not ‘‘searched for’’ to be

explicitly ‘‘conscious, constructive, or empowering’’ rather they were ‘‘discovered’’

as emergent themes considered therapeutically relevant by the author. However,

Tyson et al. (2012) explicitly sought to elicit constructive and socially relevant

themes within commercial Hip-Hop recordings for use within therapeutic strategies.

The underlying assumption of the individual and community empowerment

framework is that its dimensions are universally applicable as developmentally

meaningful across the lifespan. Therefore, the hypothesis is that each framework

dimension will be represented in both the analyses of youth expression and the

commercially recognizable music. Research findings in both studies help illustrate

the heuristic, empirical and developmental value of the above individual and

community empowerment framework dimensions (Table 3).

Only the results of Lightstone (2012b) reflected themes obvious to the esteemdimension. The prominent themes reflected mood stabilization and validation of

abilities. Sadness, hatred and substance use to cope with pain were noted. A variety

of abilities was highlighted, including potentially higher risk competencies such as

substance use, drug dealing and sexual prowess. Both studies found resiliencethemes prominent. Further, the nuances of the dimension were outlined. First, was

cathartic expression of one’s ‘‘story’’ and challenges (e.g., loneliness and pain).

Next, were methods of overcoming these adversities, followed by perspective on

and commentaries linked to overcoming adversities (e.g., survival of the fittest; Iain’t never gonna retire).

The growth dimension featured prominently in the themes found within both

research studies. Similar to resilience, all sub themes existed, including maturity in

competence, greater relationships, decision-making and care. The mentorship and

modeling component was identified but as a 1-on-1 or person-to-person correlate of

themes also present in the change dimension: against parental neglect, against‘‘thug’’ lifestyle, against substance abuse, against violence. When these narratives

are in the context of ‘‘you or I can be more responsible’’ then it is part of the growth

dimension. However, if this changed to ‘‘us or we can be more responsible and

avoid neglect’’ then the dimension is about community level change.

The two studies found relevant themes that linked to the community dimension,

especially the collective lived experience of communities and pride in aspects of the

community. What was not readily evident in this sample of songs however, was the

personal stake and role in preserving community values and norms. These recent

analyses captured change-oriented themes well, with the exception of the reaffirmed

vision for a new status quo. Themes discovered included critical analyses of existing

disparities and undesirable features in the status quo (e.g., perceived propaganda,

societal apathy toward oppression, military conflict, racism and capitalism), and

planning actions to mitigate these challenges. Action plans provided examples of

high and low risk change strategies. Lightstone (2012b) shed light on high-risk

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Table 3 Analyses of ICE framework dimensions by thematic categories in research

Esteem 1. Personal view of self and abilities; how others view person and are viewed; desired identities:

Spiritual practices—‘‘Red from the things I said, cause ya smoking it up; from the knowledge, meditation

when ya thinking’’ (note: closer to esteem enhancing boasting than spiritual growth)a

2. Emotional regulation; joy/pain; experiences to reinforce joy and happiness while minimizing pain

(e.g., high and low risk strategies):

Sadness—‘‘God send me an angel to heal my broken heart from being in love cause all I do is crying’’’a

Hatred—‘‘My brain’s sharper than thistles; I hate you, blow up into evaporated sweat crystals’’a

Drug use as coping strategy—‘‘In this life we all gain to lose; either you deal with it with weed or booze,

or let reality eat at you…’’a

Pervasive violence: Desperation and emotional stress/painb

3. Esteem-enhancing strategies or life characteristics to be proud of; esteem-enhancing strengths:

Musical rap abilities, sexual drug use and dealing (e.g., boasting, expression, glorification of use and

dealing), being a badmana

Resilience 4. My story: social reality; life experiences; personal triumphs and adversities; context for self-esteem:

Loneliness—‘‘My destiny is vague, I look up I see nothing but rain; Many say life is all struggle, yes

indeed it is’’a

Spiritual/mythical/supernatural—‘‘The devil’l bring the pain; open your third eye and f**ck them devil

lies’’a, personal sufferingb

Bleak surroundings with little hopec, pervasive violencec

5. Strategies for triumphs and coping with adversity; competency in face of adversity:

Frustration with hardships—‘‘So tired of living this living we are living, Make you weak minds feel they

gotta give in; Now’s the time to live prosperity’’*, personal empowermentb, perseverance#; bleaksurroundings: hustlingc, pervasive violence: survivalc

6. Perspective/mindset about adversity, coping, and competencies; high versus low risk ‘‘sparks’’ of

competency/mastery

(e.g., survival mode; any means necessary vs. prosocial competence/mastery/spark; post-traumatic

growth):

Anger (‘‘me’’)—‘‘Yo cops ya’ll deserve to die’’*

Prayer/Praise—‘‘Praise the life that I be living; trying to survive, and the way I be living; everyday

survival of the fittest’’*

Death/mortality/afterlife—‘‘Came back trying to open up the heaven’s gate; I never knew how a situationturns so… cause I came back and I am trying to let my life flow’’*

Search for meaning/release from meaninglessness—‘‘Living for the dollar, but what is our life really

worth? Just to struggle and survive this hurt, and not get filthy from all this dirt’’*

Threats—‘‘Yo the state of mind I’m in, they call me Black Terminator… I ain’t never gonna retire’’*,

Loyaltyb

Pervasive violence: Survivalc

Growth 7. Being more mature, healthy and whole; competency for purpose of reaching potential; low-risk

‘‘sparks’’ (e.g., competency/mastery):

Call to avoid or stop violence—‘‘Nevah wanna take the life of another man; but if he’s coming for me I’ll

leave that in God’s hand; try to avoid confrontations physically, but if he wanna go I’ll kill him

verbally’’*, Praise of Educationb

8. Beyond competence: better relationships; healthier decisions, care/concern for others (e.g., morality):

Drugs will harm you*

Prayer/Thanks—‘‘Thank you mom(ma) for de nine months ya carried me through; all de pain and

suffering; ya never heard that?*

Prayer/Request—‘‘Well my mind is filled with sickness; Please do not leave me Jah, I am the only one

left and I’ll still be the only one left’’*

Personal empowermentb, praise of family valuesb, spiritualityb, loveb, friendshipb, empathyb

9. Individual level contribution; one-to-one mentorship and modeling; advice and guidance:

Against Materialism (‘‘me’’)b, social complacency (‘‘me’’)b, against parental neglect (‘‘me’’)b, against‘‘Thug’’ lifestyle (‘‘me’’)b

Against substance abuse (‘‘me’’) b, against violence (‘‘me’’)b

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anger where the strategy was extreme, ‘‘y’all deserve to die’’. This contrasted

significantly with, ‘‘We have to think positive toward the future and learn from the

mistakes we make.’’

Table 3 continuedCommunity 10. Social network reality; sense of belonging and prioritized communities; community role in growth

(e.g., community contribution to mastery and morality); high versus low-risk experiences:

Depictions of violence experienced, witnessed, or imagined—‘‘We all drenched in blood; we got so much

of it we might cause a flood, and now look at what we doing to each other’’*

Spirituality (‘‘we’’)b, Pervasive violence: Belongingc

11. Personal role within existing communities

Pervasive violence: Retributionc

12. Community pride, strength, agency, and resilience; future: the vision of possibility for community:

Spiritual concepts—‘‘I seen the truth through his eyes, a black man in disguise; he showed me the seven

seals… made my mind appeal’’*

Rastafarian influenced spiritual expression—‘‘Praise thee Jah Sal ah ah ah sie’’*

Personal empowerment (‘‘we’’)b, praise of family valuesb, praise of work and achievement (‘‘we’’)b,

praise of womenb

Change 13. Critical thinking about valued communities; awareness of injustice, disparities and community

concern:

We are fed propaganda—‘‘people criticize… it ain’t they lives that die or deny by government illusion,

pump our minds with pollution’’—‘‘media feeding us all this propaganda, conceptions manipulated;

our visions getting faded’’—‘‘we all getting treated like fools, the way they put us in institutions and

make us go to school.’’a

Society is abusive/apathetic—‘‘Nobody else gets to choose to be violated and abused while the public

does nothing & is always amused’’*

The War is not justified—‘‘As we often are, could be wrong so; bear with us as we continue to bomb’’*

Critique of capitalist/consumer culture—‘‘Our principals of true Hip-Hop have been forsaken; It’s all

contractual and about money making’’—‘‘living in this world of sin, I’m just a brown kid, I’m outside

looking in’’*

Social oppressionb, economic oppressionb, racial oppressionb, against materialismb, social complacencyb

Against parental neglect (‘‘we’’)b, against ‘‘Thug’’ lifestyle (‘‘we’’)b, against substance abuse (‘‘we’’)b,

against violence (‘‘we’’)b

14. Organizing, planning and actions to mitigate or eliminate perceived challenges in valued

communities:

Hope/hopelessness (‘‘we’’)—‘‘We have to think positive toward the future and learn from the mistakes

we make’’a

Anger (‘‘we’’)—‘‘Yo cops ya’ll deserve to die’’a

Stop Racism—‘‘Black on black crime has to stop, white on white crime has to stop… Everything needs to

stop cause really and truly we are all one inside’’*

Spiritual/mythical/supernatural—‘‘The devil’l bring the pain; open your third eye and f**ck them devil

lies; to all my warriors and my Souljahs Rise like Jehovah’’a

15. Reaffirmed vision of new and improved status quo with new community experiences

Analyses of ICE framework dimensions according to researched themes within music therapy content and commercially

available rap music recordings. Source articles for analyses werea Lightstone (2012b) (themes based on lyrics created by youth in a music therapy program)b Tyson et al. (2012) (themes based on lyrics in songs from popular music recordings)c Kubrin (2005) (themes based on lyrics in songs from rap albums between 1992 and 2000)d Coding of authors was prioritized. For example, Crossroads (against violence) could likely be categorized as growth

and community because of the prominence of themes of connectedness and a sense of community

Title of unique coding themes (in italics)—‘‘Quoted lyrics’’ as needed

‘‘Me’’: refers to when the application of themes refers primarily to issues relating to the individual

‘‘We’’: refers to when the application of themes refers primarily to issues relating to a collective group

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Dimensions, Themes and Structure for Developmental Research and Practice

These latter two research studies suggest that there are varied ways to organize

thematic content. Major agreement existed on content, especially the social and

cultural relevance of themes. However, to date, existing themes have offered little

systematic guidance to empirically examining their utility or efficacy in practice,

and little guidance for their use in creating change strategies. The individual and

community empowerment framework easily consolidates these recent thematic

findings, and offers a meaningful structure for further analyses and for developing

change strategies. The present framework also allows for the simultaneity of

empowering and risky aspects of a single dimension/theme, whereas the above

examples offered no strategies for capturing both aspects of themes. This is a critical

developmental feature for the social realities of contemporary youth.

Tyson et al. (2012) offer important direction for future research. In their

implications, they discuss analyzing dimension/theme frequencies within songs.

This approach would be especially valuable using the ICE framework, capturing

frequencies and the simultaneous presence and magnitude/saturation of empower-

ment and risk. This strategy would provide powerful insights into the contents of

songs for listeners, for parents, and for helping professionals. This frequency-based

approach also allows for overlapping dimensions to be captured, such as content

that speaks to issues of resilience, growth, and community at the same time.

Dimensions of Empowerment and a Model of Empowerment-Based YouthDevelopment

Research Question 3 How well does the framework align with a model of

empowerment-based positive youth development?

Again, evidence suggests that adolescents proactively use music in general to

cope on their own (Saarikallio 2011; Miranda and Claes 2009; Chin and Rickard

2012). Professional uses of rap and Hip-Hop culture as forms of music therapy, and

rap and Hip-Hop within therapeutic modalities are also strengthening (Hadley and

Yancey 2012, p. xiii). Research continues to help understand the functional values

of the culture. Original theorizing and research connected to the ICE framework

suggest that rap music can be treated as developmental narratives (Travis and

Deepak 2011; Travis and Bowman 2012a). Data in the present study suggest that

these developmental narratives are relevant as forms of therapeutic self-expression

and as socially constructive themes within commercially available music.

The dimensions and themes of the individual and community empowerment

framework reflect universal issues of lifespan development. Research further

suggests that youth and adults use these developmental narratives to both self-assess

and work toward desired positive outcomes, on their own (i.e., emotional and

functional self-regulation) and in partnership with professionals (i.e., social workers,

counselors, youth workers). Each ICE dimension has social science roots (e.g., self-

esteem, resiliency, positive youth development, social identity, sense of community,

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and civic engagement), but collectively they speak to long-term positive lifespan

development and an interrelatedness between person and environment.

From the perspective of theoretical change, exposure to empowering narratives

alone is one approach. However, deliberate active engagement of narratives offers

promise as a developmental intervention. Before outlining the potential mechanisms

of change and the outcomes, it is necessary to examine how the framework aligns

with a variable-based developmental outcome model.

By making clear connections among empowerment dimensions in the framework

and youth development model indicators, we can use this integrated conceptual

model to predict, measure, test and plan for improved outcomes and processes

(Table 4). Further, we can create research-based developmental interventions that

integrate Hip-Hop culture in specific and measurable ways to promote development

and mitigate risk.

Empowerment-based Positive Youth Development: The Individualand Community

Using a model of positive youth development ‘‘that is neither mired in challenges

nor ignorant of racial, ethnic or cultural dynamics’’ (Swanson et al. 2002), a ‘‘new

vision of healthy developmental trajectories has been outlined that is strengths-

based, developmental, culture-bound, and action oriented’’ (Travis and Leech

2012).

The empowerment-based positive youth development model augments the

traditional five Cs of youth development model by explicating the interrelatedness

among the original five developmental indicators (i.e., connection, confidence,

competence, caring and character), and adding sense of community and active andengaged citizenship as necessary constructs for bridging person and environment

(Fig. 1). For example, understanding the simultaneity of some constructs suggests

Table 4 Empowerment dimensions and empowerment-based youth development indicators

Individual and community

empowerment dimensions

Empowerment-based positive

youth development indicators

Esteem Confidence

Connection

Resilience Competence

? Confidence, connection

Growth Caring

Character

? Competence, confidence, connection

Community Sense of community

Change Citizenship

The table compares the individual and community empowerment framework dimensions with indicators

of the empowerment-based positive youth development model. The youth development model includes

indicators as presented in Travis and Leech (2012)

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that confidence, competence and connection often highly correlate among one

another. These are ‘‘reinforcing assets’’ (Gibbs and Bankhead 2000; Lee et al.

2011).

These modifications, introducing and explaining the multiplicative influences of

community and citizenship, are essential for the contextual realities of contempo-

rary youth, particularly marginalized youth. Within positive youth development

literature, competence, confidence, connection, character and caring are believed to

coalesce to promote an ethic of caring about and contribution toward others (Lerner

2009; Jelicic et al. 2007).

In both the individual and community empowerment framework and the

empowerment-based positive youth development model, sense of communityfacilitates change and citizenship, respectively. Individuals privilege certain

communities over others. In these valued communities, there is an impetus for

engagement and creating better conditions that emerges. However, there must be

opportunities to engage in strategies for change since benevolence alone is

insufficient (Watts and Guessouss 2006; Flanagan and Levine 2010; Travis 2010).

The distinction between the ICE growth dimension’s contribution and the change

CONFIDENCE COMPETENCE

CARINGCHARACTER

CONNECTION

Sense of COMMUNITY

EngagedCITIZENSHIP

Fig. 1 Conceptual model of empowerment-based positive youth development, including sense ofcommunity and active/engaged citizenship as necessary developmental features. The model also displaysinterrelatedness among youth development indicators. Adapted from Travis and Leech (2012)

160 R. Travis Jr.

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dimension’s engaged citizenship is the target outcome. Growth: contribution relates

to working toward individual change (such as through mentorship or modeling)

versus population level change (such as through organizing campaigns) (Travis and

Deepak 2011). The mediating prominence of community is clearer for social change

outcomes at the population level.

Active and engaged citizenship in the present model refers more broadly to

change that will result in substantive impacts to all members of the community. In

relation to youth, youth-led civic engagement and youth organizing are two terms

amidst a variety of terms used to describe methods of incorporating youth into

campaigns for social change (Delgado and Staples 2008; Ginwright and James

2002). A survey of 160 groups in the youth organizing field in 2010 found that

organizations work on multiple issues simultaneously and address their interrelat-

edness (Torres-Fleming et al. 2011). However, the most common campaign and

community issues were educational justice (65 %), racial justice (50 %), environ-

mental justice (38 %), health (37 %), juvenile justice (36 %), immigration rights

(34 %) and gender/women issues at 30 % (Torres-Fleming et al. 2011).

Unique to youth organizing in comparison to strictly community organizing is the

simultaneous attention to leadership, and youth and campaign/issue development

(Torres-Fleming et al. 2011). Resistance to cultural oppression is often encouraged. In

these instances, strategies are simultaneously issue based and linked to specific cultural

and identity groups (e.g., ethnicity, gender). Youth involved in strategies to promote

social change often have support with unique positive impacts on youth development

and community outcomes (Gambone et al. 2004; Delgado and Staples 2008).

Discussion

In a world that is becoming smaller through globalization and with a steadily aging

population, it is vitally important to all nations that youth develop healthier and become

more significantly engaged contributors to the health of their communities. Across

professional disciplines charged with promoting the health and well-being of youth,

interest continues to grow in understanding meaningful ways of engaging Hip-Hop

culture and rap music. Social work is uniquely positioned among these disciplines

because of the mission, values and ethics encoded within the profession, along with the

requisite training to understand and address change at numerous levels. Social work

simultaneously addresses both person and environment. Social workers are charged

with meeting the needs of individuals within the context of their social and cultural

reality. Social workers are charged with advocating on behalf of vulnerable populations,

often living in conditions that create or exacerbate social disparities. Social workers are

poised to emerge as leaders in these efforts due to their professional mandate and unique

skills that speak to all dimensions of the empowerment-based model outlined.

Implications for Practitioners

With acknowledgement of the potential that for a variety of reasons rap music may

not be the developmental intervention of choice for some (Elligan 2012, p. 38), the

Rap Music and the Empowerment of Today’s Youth 161

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integration of the empowering aspects of Hip-Hop culture have shown to transcend

race, ethnicity, gender, culture, geography and nation. These methods engage youth

in positive change as both individuals and as part of communities. However, many

prior efforts have been isolated strategies, whether geographically or by discipline.

Social work is in prime position to be a leader in these efforts. For the work to

realize measurable advances in improving knowledge, attitudes, behavior and health

for youth, a strong interdisciplinary network of applied stakeholders, a common

vision and valid research-informed strategies are essential.

Findings suggest that empowerment and risk are relevant constructs for

understanding music engagement and that there is utility in further defining

empowerment by the dimensions: esteem, resilience, growth, community and

change. These empowering dimensions are salient for those that engage music in

casual everyday use, those that engage music through their own self-expression

(within structured music therapy), and within commercial music that may be

employed in therapeutic interventions. These dimensions consolidate existing

themes and concepts that have been written about in the past, offering tremendous

therapeutic utility. These dimensions allow flexibility within therapeutic environ-

ments so that judgment about ‘‘preferred’’ music styles and content can move past

‘‘positive versus negative’’ and instead frame music within the health and well-

being contexts of empowerment and risk. Practitioners can use this research-

informed developmental perspective for strategic guidance and reliable

measurement.

Implications for Researchers

The present study outlines clear, defined and specific constructs for a wide array of

empirical inquiry based on music engagement and positive youth development.

Researchers can focus on the basic science of expanding our awareness of the

functions of music engagement. Researchers can further examine distinctions

among the functional value of music therapy versus music in therapy. Further,

researchers can increase their levels of empirical complexity by unpacking youth

development indicators and the ICE framework dimensions and looking at the

nuanced relationships among specific dimensions and indicators. The area of

thematic frequency adds a powerful layer to all the above areas of inquiry. In many

ways, the options of exploration have no bounds. However, of greatest urgency is an

accepted framework within which to scaffold our understanding. The presented

evidence in this paper suggests that the individual and community empowerment

framework is a promising avenue for further interdisciplinary research.

Implications for Parents and Guardians

Many parents worry about the content of music both for its moral integrity and fears

of its longer-term impacts on high-risk attitudes or behaviors. Further, many parents

and guardians are limited because of their lack of awareness of what is in the

content. The present study offers direction in helping understand some of the major

themes within music that actually transcend specific words, phrases and hooks.

162 R. Travis Jr.

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These themes reflect narratives about the growth and well-being of youth and may

be a platform for parents to be present and open to the words and thoughts of their

children. It can deepen discussions and exchanges. It also gives them a window into

developmental strategies in general, for how to create the most positive develop-

mental setting possible for their child. In sum, these narratives are a doorway to

discussions and actions that can strengthen the relationship between parent/guardian

and child.

Conclusion

I have outlined above how in many ways rap music, a component of Hip-Hop

culture, is a discourse in lifespan development. Rap music comprises developmental

narratives to use for understanding, for inquiry, for planning, and for change. A

model has been outlined that (a) provides a template for better understanding of

narratives and (b) positions this understanding for use as a tool to promote positive

change for individuals and the communities that they value.

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